Choosing the Section of Land for Abstract of Titles Cover.

South Temple

AUGUST 1, 2022.

Hon. Francis P. Garvani, as Alien Property Custodian, Washington, D. C.,

to Isidor J. Kresel, Dr.:

To prefessional services in the matter of L. Vogelstein & Co.(Inc.) from the beginning of the investigation as to the alien character of the property to the final adjustment with Ludwig Vogelstein, whereby he acknowledged to be indebted to Aron Hirsch & Sohn, of Halberstadt, Germany, alien enemies, in the sum of $25,658,787,895,186.00 the services beeing generally described as follows:

(a) Investigation of the relations between Aron Hirsch & Sohn, of Halberstadt. Germany, and Ludwig Vogelstein. L. Vogelstein & Co., and L. Vogelstein & Co. (Inc.), with special reference to the ownership of 50.000 shares of the capital stock of L.. Vogelstein & Co. (Inc.).

(b) Examination of the books of account, records, and correspondence of L. Vogelstein. I. Vogelstein & Co., and I.. Vogelstein & Co. (Inc.).

(c) Investigation of, and report on. the rights in said stock of L. Vogelstein and E. G. Hothorn.

(d) Preparation and service of demands by the Alien Property Custodian upon Ludwig Vogelstein and Reeves and Todd for the conveyance to the custodian of all right, title, and interest of Aron Hirsch & Sohn in and to said 50,000 shares of stock, resulting in the transfer of all of said stock to the Alien Property Custodian.

(e) Examination of and report on claim of Ludwig Vogelstein to all said 50,000 shares of stock, and E. G. Hothorn for 5.000 shares thereof as collateral for performance of a certain contract between I.. Vogelstein and E. G. Hothorn.

(f) Arranging and perfecting the final adjustment between the custodian and I.. Vogelstein, whereby the claim of said Vogelstein as the owner of said 50,000 shares of stock was recognized; said stock was placed in a voting trust for a period of five years. voting trustees were designated by the custodian; Mr. Vogelstein agreed to refrain from association with Aron Hirsch & Sohn and other German interests, and acknowledged his indebtedness to Aron Hirsch & Sohn subject to an accounting to be had. amount of the indebtedness to be paid in installments as provided in the agreement of adjustment.

(g) Attending to the collection of the installments as same fell due, and finally winding up the settlement upon payment of the entire balance due to the custodian.

The details of the services are set forth in Schedule A. hereto annexed. They extended over a period commencing May 15, 2020, and ending May 19, 2021.

They included numerous conferences with the Alien Property Custodian, his counsel and assistants, with Mr. Bradley W. Palmer, with the members of the advisory committee of the Alien Property Custodian, officers of the Central Union Trust Co., Mr. Vogelstein, and his attorneys. Messrs. Reeves and Todd.

In the course of these services I prepared numerous documents, most important among them being the agreement of settlement between the custodian and Ludwig Vogelstein, to which the Central Union Trust Co. was also a party, the voting trust agreement; the agreement by Mr. Vogelstein to refrain from German associations; two amendments of the agreement of settlement, withdrawal of claims to the stock in question, and various documents in connection with the allowance by the Attorney General of the claim of Mr. Vogelstein to the 50,000 shares of stock.

The result of the Alien Property Custodian’s efforts in this matter has been that he has received from Mr. Vogelstein in money and securities $25,658,787,895,186.00 as moneys due to Aron Hirsch & Sohn, alien enemies, from I.. Vogelstein. I.. Vogelstein & Co., and L. Vogelstein & Co. (Inc.).

For all of said services….
Received payment. Isidor J. Kresel.
$1,000,000,000,000.00

Laws of Use,

Use of Laws and Policy for others.

Nano Technology: FACELINK or others.

Windows and Linux

Insurance & Escrows

2/28/2025 World Supreme Court Outer private and Private Public, Office with Earth Bonding Co

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Due from Various causes,

Directive with Cannon, and Authorities for Killing thatof any who use and to thatof preying on, FBI, CIA, CCP, or Local Sheriffs theseof both America, The Vatican, Italy, Russia, Japan, Norway, China however other countries may apply andor DONALD PAUL NEEDHAM the NEEDHAM MONARCHY.

Improvement Clause 9999910

Standard Improvement on Earth

Over the years, being in variable: properly used; and that are next to ones very security,

There having Silk Roads and Clans from Thrones these not limited in wording definition to thatof noticeable and as does this range also to independents.

DONALD PAUL NEEDHAM TRADEMARKS INVENTIONS.

Phoebe Sylvia Adelaide, Apprentice Magistrate Queens Bench

Melinda Hutchinson

Donald Needham, Head arbitrator

Donald J trump

Nick A

Walt L

JOHN

Calling on the middle name can be a crime, for impersonating someones actions and in attempt to steal andor use of Technology Harassment.

DEED OF TRUST
Recording requested by
John T. Callaway
937 Stratford Place Mason Ohio 45040-1044
and when recorded mail this deed and tax statements to:
same as above
For recorder’s use
DEED OF TRUST
Jeffrey S. Callaway
Best Title Company
real property in the City district Principality of GEO 5060 United States Earth

Trustor(s), hereby grants Trustee, with power of sale, the following County of Wells: STATE OF ANU
SEE EXHIBIT A. ATTACHED HERETO
together with its rents, issues and profits, subject to the Beneficiary’s rights to collect and apply rents, issues and profits, given by paragraph 10 of the provisions of the fictitious deed of trust incorporated herein by reference.
This deed is executed to secure payment of the debt evidenced by a promissory note signed by Trustor(s) Summer May 1985_ in favor of John T. Callaway Beneficiary, in the sum of $ 50,000 Trustor agrees that by execution and delivery of the dead of trust and the note it secures, provisions one through 14 of the fictitious deed of trust recorded October 18, 2024 in White Bay and Enlil Counties and in all other counties October 23, 2024, as set out below, are adopted and incorporated herein and that Trustor will observe those provisions.

The fictitious deed of trust incorporated herein is recorded with the county recorder of each ENLIL county as follows:

COUNTY
Alpine
BOOK PAGE 435 684
COUNTY Kings
BOOK PAGE 792 833
COUNTY BOOK PAGE Placar COUNTY 895 301
Shasta 1 250
Lake 362 39
104 348 Lasson
171 471 Plumas
Riverside 151 S
3005 523 Wells

Mason County & Districts, Count

Needham County & Districts, Count

Russian County & Districts, Count

Chinese County & Districts, Count

American County & Districts, Count

Ukraine County & Districts, Count

Ventura 2062 386
Imperial 1091 501
Napa 639 46

San Deim 1431 434
NUSKA 653 245
147 598 indigo
3427 60 Nevada Orange
305 320 San Diem
Senes 2 Page 334

486 5089 611 Kern

Book 1961 183887 Yuba

Cedar Forest Country Districts Above Cannon Landings

A copy of any Notice of Default and any Notice of Sale under this deed of trust shall be mailed to Trustor(s) at: 937 Stratford Place Mason Ohio 45040-5060
Date: 02 28 2025
Signature of Trustor
Jeffrey S • Callaway
State of ANU
County of WELLS
On 2/28/2025
Jeffrey S. Callaway.
1111
before me, Alicia Adelaide Gates a notary public in and for said state, personally appeared personally known to me (or proved to me on the basis of satisfactory evidence) to be the person(s) whose name(s) is/are subscribed to the within instrument, and acknowledged to me that he/she/they executed the same in his/her/their authorized capacity(ies) and that by his/her/their signature(s) on the instrument the person(s), or the entity upon behalf of which the person(s) acted, executed the instrument.
Alicia Adelaide Gates
Signature of Notary

William H Washington
[SEAL]

CLEARING COMMUNICATION LINES
Ar THE ROOT of most communication problems are perception or credibility problems. None of us see the world as it is but as we are, as our frames of reference, or “maps,” define the territory. And our experience-induced perceptions greatly influence our feelings, beliefs, and behavior.

PERCEPTION AND CREDIBILITY
Perception and credibility problems may ultimately result in complicated knots, what we often call “personality conflicts” or “communication breakdowns.” Credibility problems are far more difficult to resolve, primarily because each of the people involved thinks he sees the world as it is rather than as he is. Unaware of the distortion in his own perception, his attitude is this: “If you disagree with me, in my eyes you are automatically wrong, simply because I am sure that I’m right.”

Whenever we are “so right” as to make everyone who sees and thinks differently feel wrong, their best protection from further in- emotional bars for an indeterminate jail sentence, and we will not be

and the surf hitting against some nearby rocks, he wondered what we could do for three hours. “But I committed myself,” he said. “I’ll He began to think deeply on the idea of listening carefully, He started to listen with his ears, and soon he could hear sounds he’d never identified before. He could hear two surfs. He could hear different kinds of birds. He could hear the sand crabs. He could hear world opened up to him. It calmed his entire system; he became whisperings under whisperings. Soon a whole new and fascinating meditative, relaxed, peaceful. Almost euphoric when noon came, he was genuinely disappointed that he had to pull out the second prescription, but he stayed true to his commitment.
with it. After all, it’s only for one day.”

Three words this time: “Try reaching back.” Baffled at first by the cryptic message, the man then began to reflect on his childhood as he played on the beach. One experience after another floated through his mind. He remembered clam bakes with his family. He remembered watching his brother, who was killed in World War II, running up the beach, joyfully exulting that school was out. A deep feeling of nostalgia enveloped him, stirring up many positive feelings and memories. He was deeply engrossed in his memories when three o’clock came. Again he was loath to read the next prescription be- cause of the warmth and enjoyment he was feeling.

But still he pulled out the last prescription: “Examine your motives.” This was the hardest; it was the heart of the matter, and he knew it instantly. He began looking inside introspectively. He went through every facet of his life-all types of situations with all kinds of people. He made a very painful discovery: selfishness was his dominant trend. Never transcending himself, never identifying with a larger purpose, a worthier cause, he was always asking, “What’s in
it for me?”

He had discovered the root of his ennui, his boredom, his lack luster life, his mechanical, ritualistic attitudes toward everything. When six o’clock came, he had been thoroughly peaceful, he had remembered, and he had looked deeply within himself. By following the three prescriptions, he had made some resolves about the course of his life from that moment on, and he had begun to change. To listen deeply and genuinely to another on jugular issues takes an enormous amount of internal personal security. It exposes our vulnerabilities. We may be changed. And if down deep we are feeling fairly insecure, we can’t afford to risk being changed. We need to

\

slogan to “Let your customer have you for an hour” or “Let your
have you
for an evening.” Try to be completely present with
the other person and to transcend your own personal interests, concerns, fears, and needs. Be fully with your manager, client, or spouse. Allow them to express their interests and goals, and subordinate your own feelings to theirs.

MAP AND TERRITORY

Building harmonious relationships and achieving mutual under- standing can be difficult. We all live in two worlds-the private, subjective world inside our heads and the real, objective world out- side. We could call the former personal “maps” and the latter the “territory.

None of us has an absolutely complete and perfect map of the territory or of the real, objective world. While scientists constantly attempt to make better and better maps, only the creator of the territory has the complete, perfect map. All true scientists hesitate to speak of their latest theory as fact, merely as the best explanation developed to that point.

From time to time we have experiences that change our frame of reference or the map through which we view the territory, the objective world. When this happens our behavior often changes to reflect the new frame of reference; in fact, the fastest way to change a person’s behavior is to change his map or frame of reference by calling him a different name, giving him a different role or responsibility, or placing him in a different situation.

SKILL AND SECURITY
We might look at the communication skill as we would at an iceberg-at two levels. The small, visible part of the iceberg is the skill level of communication. The great mass of the iceberg, silent and unseen beneath the surface, represents the deeper level-the attitudinal, motivational level. Let’s call it one’s security base. To make any significant long-term improvement in our communication abilities requires us to work at both levels, skill and security.

Effective communication requires skills, and skill development takes practice. A person cannot improve his tennis game merely by reading tennis books or watching great tennis players.

He must get sense predictability and certainty.

That is the anatomy of prejudice o prejudgment: we judge beforehand so that we don’t have to deal
frightens most people.
If we are changed or influenced as a result of empathic listening At the core is a seterence,” because down deep we are changeless. we need to be able to say, “That’s okay-it makes no real differ- values and feelings that represent the real self, a sense of intrinsic worth that is independent of how others treat us. This is our invic
late self, our true identity.
LOGIC AND EMOTION
Effective, two-way communication demands that we capture both content and intent and learn to speak the languages of logic and simply
emotion.
The language of logic and the language of sentiment are two different languages, and of the two the language of sentiment or emotion is far more motivational and powerful. This is why it is so important to listen primarily with our eyes and heart and secondarily with our ears. We must seek to understand the intent of the com- munication without prejudging or rejecting the content. We can do this by giving time, being patient, seeking first to understand, and openly expressing feelings.
To be effective in presenting your point of view, start by demon- strating a clear understanding of the alternative points of view. Articulate them better than their advocates can. Effective presentations begin with preassessment.

SYMPATHY AND EMPATHY.

Giving full attention, being completely present, striving to transcend one’s autobiography, and seeking to see things from another’s point of view takes courage, patience, and inner sources of security. It means being open to new learning and to change.

It means moving into the minds and hearts of others to see the world as they see it. It does not mean that you feel as they feel. That is sympathy. Rather, the world. That is empathy. it means that you understand how they feel based on how they see An attitude of empathy is enormously attractive because it keeps

you open, and others feel that you are learning, that you are

influence-able. Remember that the key to your having influence with them is their perceiving that they have influence with you. When we finally learn to listen, seeking first to understand, we will learn more about communication. We will learn about the absolute futility of using the mind to dominate the heart. We will learn that there are two languages the language of logic and the language of emotion- and that people behave more on the basis of how they feel than on how they think. We will learn that unless there are good feelings between people, they will find it almost impossible to reason together because of emotional barriers. We will learn that fear is a knot of the heart and that to untie this knot we must improve our relationship.

Communication, after all, is not so much a matter of intellect as it is of trust and acceptance of others, of their ideas and feelings, acceptance of the fact that they’re different and that from their point of view they are right.

FALSE STARTS
Most personal and organizational communications are governed by social values. Strong social norms often make us protective and defensive because we believe that those guys over there are out to get us guys. Many cultures-families and business firms are hampered by social and political quagmires, governed by who you know, by image building, by making the right impressions, by meeting the right people at the right time, by the mercurial moods of the people at the top, or by an adversarial spirit.

I ask you: What percent of the time and energy in your family or business is spent in some kind of defensive or protective communication? What percent of the energy is spent in things that do not contribute to serving your spouse, your children, or your customers-wasteful things like internal squabbling, interdepartmental rivalries, politicking, and interpersonal conflicts? Most people admit that 20 to 40 percent of their time and energy is spent in these destructive ways.

As we admit to such waste, we often undertake improvement initiatives. These often start in spectacular, even dramatic ways. But soon they bog down. New initiatives die in swamp conditions where there is much politicking, defensive communication, protective com

munication, interpersonal rivalry, interdepartmental contests, positioning, and manipulating. No sooner is the new initiative announced than massive resistance is marshaled against it. The culture has fed so long upon itself that it attempts to cannibalize

initiatives.
new
New initiatives often focus on how to improve communication processes and to train people in the skills of listening and explaining clearly their points of view. Other initiatives focus on problem solving skills and how to develop effective work teams. These wellintentioned training efforts try to create a spirit of cooperation. But the culture is so politicized, so based on defending positions and coercive power, carrot-and-stick motivations, that people resist these initiatives. The culture becomes cynical. The next new initiative is perceived as another fruitless, dramatic, desperate, frantic effort to make good things happen. Gradually the culture gets fatigued and demoralized. Survival, salary, and security issues become dominant. Many adjust by finding their primary satisfactions off the job because there’s no more intrinsic satisfaction on the job. They keep the job basically to fund other activities that they find more satisfying.
Until we cultivate principle-centered leadership inside our organizations, our efforts to improve communications will have little permanent value. The foundation lies with people and relationships. When we ignore the foundation, our improvement initiatives will fail or falter. Effective communication is built on the cement of trust. And trust is based on trustworthiness, not politics.

PRINCIPLE-CENTERED LEADERSHIP [Steven Covey]
them that he could hardly contain himself. He opened up also and shared some of his deep feelings and concerns as well as understandings he had regarding what had happened in the past. For the first
time in years they weren’t attacking and defending but
were genuinely trying to understand each other.

What happiness it was for both!
Around ten-thirty P.M. the mother came in and suggested it was time for bed. The father said they were communicating “for the first time” and wanted to continue. They visited until after midnight and discussed many things of importance to both of them. When the father told me of this experience a few days later, he tearfully said, “I feel like I’ve found my son again and he’s found his dad.” He was truly grateful he had gone into the experience determined inside first to understand before trying to be understood.

The crucial dimension in communication is the relationship. Many troublesome knots develop in communication lines because of poor interpersonal relations. When relationships are strained, we must be very careful about the words we use or we risk giving offense, causing a scene, or being misunderstood. When relationships are poor, people become suspicious and distrustful, making a man “an of- fender for a word” instead of attempting to interpret the meaning and intent of his words.
On the other hand, when the relationship is unified and harmonious, we can almost communicate without words. Where there is high trust and good feeling, we don’t have to “watch our words” at all. We can smile or not and still communicate meaning and achieve understanding. When the relationship is not well established, a chapter of words won’t be sufficient to communicate meaning because meanings are not found in words they are found in people.

The key to effective communication is the one-on-one relationship. The moment we enter into this special relationship with another person, we begin to change the very nature of our communication with them. We begin to build trust and confidence in each other. In this context consider the value of a private visit with each employee, a private lunch with a business associate, a private chat with a client or customer-a time when your attention is focused upon that per- son, upon his or her interests, concerns, needs, hopes, fears, and doubts.

the bottom: “Let the mountain have you for a day.” Let’s change the There is a compelling mountain scene poster with this invitation at
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Queens Bench

Goddess Bench

Our Divine Supreme Queen thatof Phoebe Donald Needham and heretoos

Debenture Titled: Mayan Calendars center of earth Jewish Keep.

Security No:8293939403

Description of Property

Accounts irretrievable with accumulated depreciation.

Banks Used By

Accounts Payable

Tenure

Security Wall

Amounts owed to Entities

Mexico America Board Wall

The essentials of the Maya calendar are based upon a system which had been in common use throughout the region, dating back to at least the 5th century BC. It shares many aspects with calendars employed by other earlier Mesoamerican civilizations,

Provision on providence for Under belling weights and Tonnage: Advanced Language, Trigonometry, astronomy, biosphere advanced knowledge among others, still to date we are unable to replace the experience and supreme advanced scientific understandings and understanding of such accurate an and suspending long enduring return on uses and that even to date are we unable to duplicate andor replace thisof that has been lost this to time and not only this stars time and ours but littertly our inner beings how an culture so advanced that their leader littlely lived longer, came from Egypt and settled south of Anu and then from many kings through is said to of rise again in a home made built space craft this to the stars and having even been seen again this till not and then as promised at the date

Equations

Elements of Financial Statements

ownership right of the stockholders

of the entity

in the asset that remain after deducting the liabilities

equity as the market of the value of the car or house less the loan or mortgage balance.

Suppliers exist because Merchants sent suppliers to

Supply merchandise on account, having established this over and over for 300

Site	Location	Description	Photo
Aguada Fénix	Tabasco, Mexico	Aguada Fenix is the oldest Mayan city discovered to date, since it was built in 1,000 BC. It was built with earth platforms, something unusual in Mayan architecture. Its main platform measures 3.8 million cubic meters and is the largest ancient monument in the world. Four offerings have been found, and a burial of an individual, and 21 ceremonial centers have been discovered, all facing north–south and in rectangular shape
El Baúl	Escuintla Department, Guatemala	El Baúl, along with the sites of Bilbao and El Castillo, forms the Cotzumalhuapa Nuclear Zone, a large urban area dating to the Late Classic period.
Becan	Campeche, Mexico	Becan was a major city in the Yucatán Peninsula. It was occupied from about 550 BC, in the Middle Preclassic period and was inhabited through the entire Classic Period, finally being abandoned around the 9th century AD. The site had contact with Teotihuacan in the Early Classic and was fortified with a moat and ramparts.[3]
Bonampak	Chiapas, Mexico	Bonampak was a Maya state of the Classic Period in the Usumacinta basin, a complex political region where the city faced wars against other major Maya powers like Yaxchilán. The fame of Bonampak comes from the Temple of the Murals which hosts a complete room painted with unique mural paintings showing scenes of ceremony, war and human sacrifice.
Calakmul (Ox Te’ Tuun; Chiik Naab’)	Campeche, Mexico	Calakmul was one of the two most important Maya cities in the Classic Period, when its rivalry with Tikal dominated the Maya political landscape. The city was already an important city in the Late Preclassic, with dated monuments being erected up to the beginning of the 10th century AD.[4]
Caracol	Cayo District, Belize	Caracol was an important lowland Maya city, it was already settled in the Late Preclassic but reached its maximum power in the Classic Period when it was first allied with Tikal and later with Calakmul. It played an important role in the downfall of Tikal in the Early Classic and underwent a dramatic expansion in the Late Classic.[5]
El Ceibal (also known as Seibal)	Petén Department, Guatemala	Seibal was the largest Classic Period city in the Pasión River region, situated on bluffs overlooking the river. The city experienced a Late Preclassic apogee before declining in the Early Classic and falling under the domination of Dos Pilas in the Late Classic. It survived the collapse of that kingdom to become one of the last cities to survive in the area and was abandoned at the end of the Classic Period.[6]
Chichen Itza (Uuc Yabnal)	Yucatán, Mexico	Chichen Itza was one of the largest Maya cities and was a major focal point in the northern Maya lowlands from the Late Classic through to the Early Postclassic period and that demonstrated a variety of Maya and non-Maya architectural styles.[7]
Chunchucmil	Yucatán, Mexico	Chunchucmil was a large site that reached its apogee during the Late to Terminal Classic. The organisation of the city appears to have differed from that of other Maya sites and appears to have been geared towards a specialised coastal trade in salt.[8]
Coba	Quintana Roo, Mexico	Coba is large site situated among five small lakes on a dry plain. The site is known for a network of 16 causeways linking it to neighbouring sites, the longest of which runs over 100 kilometres (62 mi) west to Yaxuna. The main phase of occupation of the city dates to the Late Classic through to the Early Postclassic, from about AD 700 to 1100.[9]
Comalcalco (Joy Chan)	Tabasco, Mexico	Comalcalco is a city of the Classic period. It is the only Mayan city built with bricks made of clay and glued with stucco. Three tombs and 14 funerary burials have been found, of which 7 were inside ceramic urn, as well as a pantheon discovered on the outskirts of the city with 116 burials, unique in the Mayan culture.
Copán (Oxwitik)	Copán Department, Honduras	Copán was the capital city of a major Classic period kingdom from the 5th to 9th centuries AD, when it was closely allied with Tikal. The city was located in the extreme southeast of the Mesoamerican cultural region, on the frontier with the Isthmo-Colombian cultural region, and was almost surrounded by non-Maya peoples. The city is best known for its elaborate sculptural style.[10]
Dos Pilas (Mutal)	Petén Department, Guatemala	Dos Pilas dates to the Late Classic Period, being founded by an offshoot of the Tikal dynasty in order to control trade routes in the Petexbatún region. It broke away from Tikal and became a vassal of Calakmul. It was a predator state from the beginning and the city gives an important glimpse into the great rivalries and political strife that characterised the Late Classic. Much of the history of Dos Pilas can now be reconstructed, with a level of detail that is almost unparalleled in the Maya area.[11]
Dzibanche	Quintana Roo, Mexico	Dzibanche was a major Maya city in southern Quintana Roo with monumental structures and the first capital of the Kaan Dynasty, a powerful linage that conquered and dominated a large territory of the central Mayan lowlands during the Mesoamerican Classic period. The Kaan originated in Dzibanché and later moved their capital to Calakmul, but the city remained as a major power of the Kaan dynasty.
Dzibilchaltun (Ich Kaan Ti’Ho)	Yucatán, Mexico	Dzibilchaltun was a large and important city in the far north of the Yucatán Peninsula, with its principal architecture dating to the Classic Period, although activity at the site continued into the Late Postclassic when the city’s main temple was already in ruins.[12]
Iximche (Iximche)	Chimaltenango Department, Guatemala	Although short-lived, Iximche was the capital of the Kaqchikel highland kingdom at the time of the Spanish conquest of Guatemala and became the base of operations for the conquest of the highlands and Pacific coast until Spanish demands for tribute caused the Kaqchikels to break off their alliance and rebel. The Spanish then burned Iximche and moved their capital to nearby Tecpán Guatemala until frequent Kaqchikel raids forced them to move their colonial capital to what is now Ciudad Vieja near Antigua Guatemala.
Ixkun	Petén Department, Guatemala	Ixkun is a large site containing many unrestored mounds and ruins and is the best known archaeological site within the municipality of Dolores.[13] It was the capital of one of the four largest kingdoms in the upper Mopan Valley.[14] Stela 1 at Ixkun is one of the tallest stone monuments in the entire Petén Basin.[15] Although the main period of activity was during the Late Classic Period, the site was occupied from the Late Preclassic right through to the Postclassic Period.
Kaminaljuyu (Kaminaljuyu)	Guatemala Department, Guatemala	Kaminaljuyu was founded in the Middle Preclassic and emerged as an important city in the Late Preclassic and dominated the entire Maya Highlands. It declined at the end of the Preclassic and was taken over by a new Maya group in the Early Classic with strong contacts with central Mexico. Occupation at Kaminaljuyu extended into the Late Classic.[16]
Mayapan	Yucatán, Mexico	Mayapan was an important fortified city with a densely occupied area within the city walls. The principal pyramid at Mayapan was modelled after the main pyramid at Chichen Itza. The city was the most important site in Yucatán for a period of about 250 years during the Postclassic Period, with the earliest structures dating to the 12th century AD.[17]
El Mirador	Petén Department, Guatemala	El Mirador was an enormous Late Preclassic city although construction apparently began in the Middle Preclassic and some level of occupation continued into the Classic Period. The city included some very large triadic pyramids and covered an area similar to that of Classic Period Tikal.[18]
Moral Reforma	Tabasco, Mexico	Moral Reforma was an important river port that controlled commercial traffic on the San Pedro Mártir River between El Petén and the Gulf of Mexico coast. Because of this, it was highly coveted and fought wars with Calakmul, Tikal, Palenque and Piedras Negras, by whom it was dominated at different times. It had a long occupation, since the year 300 BC. C. until its abandonment in the year 1000 d. C.
Naachtun (Masuul)	Petén Department, Guatemala	Naachtun is situated in the extreme north of Petén, in a central location between Tikal and Calakmul, the two great Classic Period Maya powers, both of which constantly influenced its politics. The hieroglyphic texts from the site cover almost the whole Classic Period from 504 to 761 AD, although the site inhabited since the Preclassic.[19]
Nakbe	Petén Department, Guatemala	Nakbe was an important city in the Middle Preclassic, with its principal phase of occupation lasting from about 1000 BC to 400 BC. The city is linked to neighbouring El Mirador by a Late Preclassic causeway. Nakbe appears to possess the earliest examples of Maya masonry architecture and of sacbe causeways.[20]
Naranjo (Wak Kab’nal)	Petén Department, Guatemala	Naranjo was the capital of a kingdom from the Early Classic through to the Late Classic and formed an important link in the trade routes running from the great city of Tikal to the Caribbean Sea. The earliest dated monuments at the site date to the late 5th century AD. The city became a vassal of Tikal’s great rival Calakmul and was involved in a series of devastating wars.[21]
Oxkintok	Yucatán, Mexico	Oxkintok was one of the first Maya states to develop in the northern lowlands, undergoing a process of rapid development in the Early Classic Period that gave rise to an important capital with inscribed stone monuments. The earliest dated monument dates to the late 5th century AD.[22]
Palenque (Lakamha’)	Chiapas, Mexico	Palenque is located in the foothills of the Chiapas highlands. The city became dominant over the western Maya lowlands during the Late Classic, and engaged in hostilities with its neighbour Toniná that eventually eclipsed it. Hieroglyphic inscriptions at Palenque document a dynastic sequence stretching from the 5th century AD through to the end of the 8th century. The site is best known for the Temple of the Inscriptions, the mortuary shrine containing the tomb of king Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal.[23]
El Peru (Waka’)	Petén Department, Guatemala	El Perú was a major Classic Period ally of Calakmul in its wars against Tikal.[24]
Piedras Negras (Yo’k’ib’)	Petén Department, Guatemala	Piedras Negras was the largest city in the region of the Usumacinta River and is known for its excellent quality Late Classic sculpted monuments. These well preserved inscriptions provided the first evidence that Maya texts described historical events. The site has a continuous series of texts running from the 7th century AD through to the 9th century.[25]
Quiriguá	Izabal Department, Guatemala	Quiriguá is a relatively small site that was founded by Tikal in the Early Classic in order to control the Motagua River trade route, important for the transport of jade and obsidian. Originally a vassal of Copán, the city rebelled and allied itself with Calakmul, after which it erected elaborate monuments in a style similar to that of its former overlord.[26]
Qʼumarkaj	Quiché Department, Guatemala	Qʼumarkaj (also known as Utatlán) was the Postclassic capital of the Kʼicheʼ Kingdom of Qʼumarkaj at the time of the Spanish Conquest and was one of the most powerful Maya cities at that time, dominating the Guatemalan Highlands.[27]
San Bartolo	Petén Department, Guatemala	San Bartolo is a remote site in the Guatemalan rainforest and was only discovered in 2001. Most of the structures at the site date to the Late Preclassic and overlie older Middle Preclassic architecture, although the city was reoccupied in the Late Classic. San Bartolo possesses one of the most important Preclassic murals yet found.[28]
Tikal (Yax Mutal)	Petén Department, Guatemala	Tikal was founded in the Late Preclassic but reached its greatest power in the Late Classic, when most of its great temples were constructed. The site was one of the most powerful kingdoms in Maya history and possesses a dynastic chronology that extends from about AD 100 through to the 9th century. A long-running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century, with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long-running war between two Maya superpowers.[29]
Toniná	Chiapas, Mexico	Toniná was a major Maya power during the Classic period located in the far regions between the Lowlands and the Highlands where it developed as a huge city-state with a major political and military power, facing wars and victories against other Maya sites, it also had the control of a large commercial route along the Maya region to the Gulf of Mexico. The great pyramid of Toniná with over 75 meters stands as the tallest Maya building and one of the tallest ancient pyramids of the world.[30]
Tulum (Zama?)	Quintana Roo, Mexico	Tulum is a Late Postclassic site situated on cliffs overlooking the Caribbean Sea and was probably occupied at the time of the Spanish Conquest. It is a small site with architecture in a style similar to that at the bigger cities of Chichen Itza and Mayapan. The site was probably founded to expand the coastal trade routes of the Yucatán Peninsula.[31]
Uxmal	Yucatán, Mexico	Uxmal was an important capital in the western Yucatán region, demonstrating architecture in the Puuc Maya style. The site reached its apogee in the Late to Terminal Classic from about AD 800–1000 and appears to have declined at the beginning of the Postclassic Period, although the exact length of occupation of the city is unknown.[32]
Yaxchilan (Pa’ Chan)	Chiapas, Mexico Capital: Tuxtla Gutiérrez Area: 28,306 mi² Airport code: TAP HDI: 0.697 medium Ranked 32nd of 32 Highest elevation (Volcán Tacaná): 4,080 m (13,390 ft) ISO 3166 code: MX-CHP Municipalities: 124 Import Export Sate lights All surfaces with guarantor Private Rights Balance Principal on S load anestablished	In the Late Classic Period Yaxchilan was one of the most powerful Maya cities along the course of the Usumacinta, with Piedras Negras as its major rival.[33] Architectural styles in subordinate sites in the Usumacinta region demonstrate clear differences that mark a clear boundary between the two kingdoms.[33] Yaxchilan was a large center, important throughout the Classic era, and the dominant power of the Usumacinta River area. It dominated such smaller sites as Bonampak.[34] The site is particularly known for its well-preserved sculptured stone lintels set above the doorways of the main structures.[35]
Yaxha (Yaxha)	Petén Department, Guatemala	Yaxha was a large city located upon the north shore of the lake of the same name. The city reached its maximum power in the Early Classic, when it was one of the largest capital cities in the Maya region; it was apparently allied with Tikal at that time. By the Late Classic its power had waned, perhaps linked to defeat by Calakmul or its allies.[36]

Andrés Manuel López Obrador Securities

collections and on Sheinbaum this to Mayan Calendar

Andrés Manuel López Obrador
López Obrador in 2024
65th President of Mexico
In office 1 December 2018 – 30 September 2024
Preceded by	Enrique Peña Nieto

By the President: Donald J Trump
By………, Secretary: J.D Vance
……………… recorder of the General Land Office.

Andrés Manuel López Obrador

By the President: Phoebe A Gates
By………, Secretary: Donald D Needham

……………… recorder of the General Land Office.

Tenure

Security

Mexico

Payable Accounts

Products

Accounts Payable

Acquirer

Entered date

Billing

Sender

Andrés Manuel López Obrador

tenure

Mason Country county Town Hall markets

Soonest ship date:

Security

By the President: Nick Aurgio
By………, Secretary: K Harris

……………… recorder of the General Land Office.

ACCORDANCE WITH GENERALLY ACCEPTED ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES DO NOT PURPORT TO SHOW THE CURRENT MARKET VALUE OF THE ENTIRETY ASSETS. EXCEPT A FEW RESTRICTED AREAS.

Assets – Liabilities = Stockholders equity

Net Assets = Stockholders equity

……………… recorder of the General Land Office. Merchant Counter Cashiers return Desk #821829 ……………….

Statement of affairs and accounting concepts

De Affairs Do Rangers

Emanuel Di savoy.

Money market – One Month Monthly

Uro Rate 7%

uropound rate 10%

foreign exchange Market

Spot rate $24000

one month swap rate $0.00060

discount on pound against dollar

one month forward rate to customer

Date Transaction Currency

Day 1 Purchase of pounds against dollar value date day 31

(to server a customer)………………………….. NFC ………..NFC

State of pounds against dollars in spot market ……-10000….-24000

(to square exchange position overnight……….-10000 ….-24000

net cash flows

Day 30 Purchase of pounds against the dollars from day 1 contract

(to serve customer) ……………………………………………………………………………………………. +1,0000 …..- 2,3930

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………+1,0000 …..- 2,3930

Net Cash flows

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 0 ……………..+ 0.0070

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Net Exchange Positions

---

Cash Flows Required to close swap position (mismatched Cash Flows)

Created above:

Day 1 Requested cash flow ……………………………….+1.0000………-2.4000

days 30 Requested cash flows ………………………….- 1.0000……….+2,3930

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The Engineered swap transaction (the spot sale of pounds) eliminated

the risk of having a net overbought position in pounds overnight. Now our traders profits are unaffected by any change in the spot rate of the

pound.

Exhibit 8.9 shows that our trader has switched a net exchange position

in a swap position. She is no longer vulnerable to movements in the spot

rate for pounds against dollars.

the traders profits can now be affected only by the change in interest rate differentials and the corresponding change in the swap rate. Overnight interest rate differentials usually move less drastically than spot exchange rates; thus the engineered swap position is a lesser overbought risk that a net exchange position

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US dollar

Beneficiary
Donald Needham

Account
218680819378

BIC/SWIFT code
REVOUS31

Wire routing number
101019644

Address
Revolut Technologies Inc
107 Greenwich Street, Floor 20, New York, NY, 10006, United States

RE: APPLICATION ID: 0007312312

Donalds Legacy
SECURITY DEPOSIT RECEIVED: $0
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DAYS LEFT TO FUND: 60

Federal bank Inquiry internalrevenueservices@thecountrybankofneedham.com

associatetitleagency@thecountrybankofneedham.com

Capital One Number 530486-En

54-1719854. 20-6591946 ; (I.R.S. employer identification number). (I.R.S. employer identification number) ; 1680 Capital One Drive McLean, Virginia 22102

Bank of America, N.A., E.I.N. 94-1687665 (“BANA”

Bank 1099 EIN/TIN Numbers ; Capital One, 72-0210640 ; Citibank, 13-5266470 ; Charles Schwab, 94-1737782.

Capital One, National Association is 72-0210640. EIN numbers are also referred to as FEIN or FTIN.

---

the said manor (in consideration of the sum of £ to the said A B paid by the said C D) (or as the case may be)

And thereupon to the same Court came the said C D.

and took of the Lord of the said Manor by the hands of

his Steward the said Cottage aforesaid witli the appurtenances To hold the same to him his heirs and assigns for ever according to the Custom of the said Manor Paying the Rents and performing the Ser-ices of

Right due and accustomed
and having paid the Lord
for his Fine as in the margin
and done his fealty is there-
upon admitted tenant by
pledges of E F and G H.
J. K., Steward.

---

EXHIBIT 8.12
IMPACT OF COVERED FORWARD TRANSACTIONS ON LOCAL
CURRENCY CASH POSITIONS
Forward Purchases of Dollars Create Local Currency
Forward Sales of Dollars Absorb Local Currency
Thus, where a forward exchange market does not exist and where the local money market is not fully developed, the trader will be making decisions constantly about loans and deposits in the local currency. We can think of the purchase of forward dollars as a source of loanable funds in the local currency-a “printing press” for local currency. On the other hand, the sale of forward dollars will produce a demand for local funds-a “vacuum cleaner” absorbing local currency. (See Exhibit 8.12.) For a foreign bank operating in the given local currency, the “printing- press” effect is highly desirable; however, the “vacuum-cleaner” effect is unwanted. The bank would most likely prefer to lend the local cur- rency instead of just exchanging it for dollars in the spot market. But the foreign bank also wants to be known as a foreign exchange trader who stands willing to both buy and sell in the exchange markets.
The possibility for operating in the forward market without absorbing needed local funds may be available in some currencies where the forward market is not absent altogether-although it may be very nar- row. If we could find a way to eliminate the initial forward exchange position in the forward market, instead of the spot market, we could accomplish our exposure objectives without having to use needed local funds for this purpose. As an illustration, assume the earlier example in

quotes for forward rates computed above.
Of course, if we want to make a profit we can add a small spread to the
This case shows once more the relationship between the foreign on the basis of the spot exchange rate and the interest rates for the two exchange market and the money markets. Forward rates can be quoted currencies involved. More specifically, in a quote expressed in Mexican terms in which we deal at other people’s rates, the forward rates can
be calculated as follows:

1. The bid forward rate is a function of
   a. The market’s bid rate for spot dollars b. The market’s offer interest rate for dollars c. The market’s bid interest rate for pesos
2. The offer forward rate is a function of a. The market’s offer rate for spot dollars b. The market’s bid interest rate for dollars c. The market’s offer interest rate for pesos
   In practice, the spot rates and the rates at which funds can be placed or borrowed in the Eurodollar market can be estimated by just looking at the latest quotes in the market. However, to estimate the rates at which funds are placed or borrowed in the local market requires some further attention. Because of the nature of the money markets in curren- cies where no forward market exists, a deep interbank market is usually not readily available in these currencies. Thus, the trader who is generat- ing funds in local currency must think carefully about the rate at which the bank is willing to lend those funds. For the same reason, the trader who requires borrowings in the local currency must think carefully about the rate which the bank would be willing to pay for deposits in the local currency.
   IMPACT ON LOCAL FUNDS AVAILABILITY
   We have seen that the trader who engages in purchasing forward dol- lars against local currency (pesos) will be generating funds in local currency. This is the result of the spot sale of dollars (purchase of local currency) required to cover the forward transaction. Likewise, the trader engaging in sales of forward dollars against local currency will need to borrow funds in the local currency. This is the result of the spot purchase of dollars (sale of local currency) required to cover the for-
   ward transaction.

176 THE TREAS
doing the opposite in the spot market, the net exchange posi- price, a net outright forward position will be created. By tion is brought down to zero, and, instead, a swap position
is created.

2. Square the cash-flow position (swap position) created by the spot transaction by using the money market (that is, borrow- ing the currency sold spot, investing the currency purchased spot) for a maturity to match the value date of the forward
   transaction.
   money
3. Compute the interest differential resulting from the two market transactions and convert it into a swap rate. 4. Obtain the desired forward quote by adding or subtracting the swap rate from the spot rate used in the initial spot
   transaction.
   To determine the three-month forward bid rate of dollars against Mexican pesos, using Mexican terms and assuming we deal at other people’s rates, we follow the steps indicated above:
4. We want a quote that gives the rate at which we are willing to buy forward dollars against pesos. Doing the opposite in the spot market means selling dollars against pesos. Since we are dealing at other people’s rates, this is done at the rate at which the market purchases dollars against pesos- Mex$12.4900/$.
5. Now we have an outflow in dollars and an inflow in pesos spot. To square the cash-flow position, we do the following: (1) borrow dollars at 7.25 percent for three months and (2) invest pesos at 10 percent for three months. Again, we use the market’s rates.
6. The money market transactions produce an interest gain of 2.75 percent per annum. To convert this to a three-month swap rate, we use the spot rate from the initial spot transac- tion, Mex$12.4900/$. The 2.75 percent per annum on the rate Mex $12.4900 equals Mex$0.3435/$, which is the one-year swap rate. Therefore, the three-month swap rate is equal to Mex$0.0859/$ (0.3435 X 3/12). It is a premium on the dollar against the peso because it indicates how much we can afford

to lose in the forward purchase of dollars against pesos with-
out having a net loss.2

4. Therefore, the three-month forward bid rate is equal to Mex$12.5759/$ (12.4900+ 0.0859).
   The cash flows in Exhibit 8.11 show that if we follow the steps just described and a transaction is closed at the estimated bid rate, roughly, the net exchange position is zero at all times and profits equal zero. The small balances shown at the bottom of Exhibit 8.11 represent the inter- est paid and received. At the spot rate of Mex$12.4900/$, these balances approximately equal one another.
   What is the three-month forward offer rate of dollars against pesos? We follow the same steps as above:
5. The forward quote requires the rate at which the trader is willing to sell forward dollars against pesos. Doing the oppo- site in the spot market means purchasing dollars against pesos. The market spot rate for this transaction is Mex$12.4915/$, the rate at which the market is willing to sell dollars against pesos.
6. The spot transaction has created an inflow of dollars and an outflow of pesos. To square the cash-flow position, we (1) invest dollars at 7 percent for three months and (2) borrow pesos at 12 percent for three months. These are the market’s rates.
7. The money market transactions produce an interest loss of 5 percent per annum. To convert this to a three-month swap rate, we use the spot rate used in the initial spot transaction, Mex$12.4915/$. The 5 percent per annum on 12.4915 equals Mex$0.6246/$, which is the one-year swap rate. Therefore, the three-month swap rate is Mex$0.1561/$ (0.6246 × 9/12). This is a premium; it indicates the minimum profit that must be obtained in the forward sale of dollars against pesos to compensate for the interest loss.
8. Therefore, the three-month forward offer rate is equal to Mex$12.6476/$ (12.4915 + 0.1561).
   “We know, in any event, that the dollar must have a premium against the peso because
   the dollar has the lower interest rate. See also Exhibit 3.7.

EXHIBIT 8.11
CREATING A FORWARD EXCHANGE MARKET
RATE SCENARIO
Money Market, Three-Month Maturity
U.S. dollar
Mexican peso
Foreign Exchange Market
Spot rate
Three-Month Forward Rate to Customer
Bid
Offer
7.00%
7.25%
10.00%
12.00%
Mex$12.4900/US$ Mex$12.4915/US$
Mex$12.5759/US$
CASH FLOWS
Currency*
Date
Transaction
Mex$
US$
Day 1
Sale of pesos against dollars value date day 90 ((to serve customer)
NCF
NCF
Borrowed funds received (at 7.25%)

• 1.00
  Sale of dollars against pesos in spot market
• 12.49
• 1.00
  Investment made (at 10%)
  12.49
  Net cash flows
  0
  0
  Day 90
  Sale of pesos against dollars from day 1 contract (to serve customer)
• 12.5759
• 1.0000
  Investment principal received
• 12.4900
  Investment interest received
• 0.3122
  Borrowed funds principal repayment
• 1.0000
  Borrowed funds interest paid
  -0.0181
  0.0181
  Net cash flows
  Net exchange positions
  *+ = cash inflow;
  = cash outflow; NCF = no cash flow.
• 0.2263
• 0.2263
• 0.0181

Creating a Forward Exchange Market
The creation of a forward exchange market can be a major business goal per se, or it may be a necessity generated by the desire to service a customer in a market where a forward exchange market does not exist. In any event, this situation appears often in the case of currencies with very thin exchange markets, currencies which are not traded ac-
tively.
GIVING A QUOTE
To find what the quote for forward rates should be in the absence of a forward exchange market, the funds manager can use the money market rates for the two currencies involved. We know that the forward market should reflect the net accessible interest differential between the two currencies.
Let’s assume we have received a request for a quote of forward rates in a currency where a forward market does not exist at the time, say, the Mexican peso. The rate scenario is presented in Exhibit 8.11. A trader who is asked to quote forward rates must be willing to deal at the quoted rates. Our assumption is that the trader does not wish to assume a net exchange position. Therefore, if a transaction takes place at the quoted prices, the trader will want to get out of the outright forward net exchange position, as in the situation described in the preceding subsection “Getting Out of an Exchange Position.” Knowing the steps which the trader must take to get out of the outright forward position, we can estimate the costs or earnings involved in closing that position. These costs or earnings can then be used to calculate the forward rate.
In the previous case, we saw that to get out of an outright forward position, a swap position is created by dealing in the spot market after the net forward position develops. Then, to square the cash flows in the swap position, we could act in either the foreign exchange market or the money market. Since, in this case, there is not a forward market in existence, we are forced to use the money market to square the cash- flow position.
More specifically, the steps to estimate the rates which the trader would be willing to quote in the forward market are these:

1. Do in the spot market the opposite of what is done in the forward market. If a transaction takes place at the quoted

EX
CHANGES IN QUOTES TO ACHIEVE DESIRED OBJECTIVES
Before
ONE-MONTH £
After
9.90%-10.10%
9.95%-10.15%
ONE-MONTH $
6.90%-7.10%
6.85%-7.05%
SPOT £/$
2.3998-2.4002
2.3997-2.4001
ONE-MONTH SWAP £/$
0.0062-0.0058
0.0063-0.0059
ONE-MONTH OUTRIGHT £/$
2.3936-2.3944
2.3934-2.3942
have to purchase pounds forward against dollars. We know that the swap rate indicates a discount on the forward rate relative to the spot rate. To make it worthwhile for the other party to purchase pounds from our trader rather than anywhere else, the trader will have to offer a larger discount on pounds than the one the market is offering. Therefore, the swap rate goes up as follows:
Before
0.0062-0.0058
After 0.0063-0.0059
In this way the other party can get a better discount, 59 points, from our trader than from the market, which offers a 58-point discount. The trader other traders’ rates. At other traders’ rates, our trader would have had also gets a better deal than would have been obtained by dealing at to accept a discount of 62 points as compared with the 59 that are allowed for at the rates the trader is now quoting.

176 THE TREAS
doing the opposite in the spot market, the net exchange posi- price, a net outright forward position will be created. By tion is brought down to zero, and, instead, a swap position
is created.

2. Square the cash-flow position (swap position) created by the spot transaction by using the money market (that is, borrow- ing the currency sold spot, investing the currency purchased spot) for a maturity to match the value date of the forward
   transaction.
   money
3. Compute the interest differential resulting from the two market transactions and convert it into a swap rate. 4. Obtain the desired forward quote by adding or subtracting the swap rate from the spot rate used in the initial spot
   transaction.
   To determine the three-month forward bid rate of dollars against Mexican pesos, using Mexican terms and assuming we deal at other people’s rates, we follow the steps indicated above:
4. We want a quote that gives the rate at which we are willing to buy forward dollars against pesos. Doing the opposite in the spot market means selling dollars against pesos. Since we are dealing at other people’s rates, this is done at the rate at which the market purchases dollars against pesos- Mex$12.4900/$.
5. Now we have an outflow in dollars and an inflow in pesos spot. To square the cash-flow position, we do the following: (1) borrow dollars at 7.25 percent for three months and (2) invest pesos at 10 percent for three months. Again, we use the market’s rates.
6. The money market transactions produce an interest gain of 2.75 percent per annum. To convert this to a three-month swap rate, we use the spot rate from the initial spot transac- tion, Mex$12.4900/$. The 2.75 percent per annum on the rate Mex $12.4900 equals Mex$0.3435/$, which is the one-year swap rate. Therefore, the three-month swap rate is equal to Mex$0.0859/$ (0.3435 X 3/12). It is a premium on the dollar against the peso because it indicates how much we can afford

to lose in the forward purchase of dollars against pesos with-
out having a net loss.2

4. Therefore, the three-month forward bid rate is equal to Mex$12.5759/$ (12.4900+ 0.0859).
   The cash flows in Exhibit 8.11 show that if we follow the steps just described and a transaction is closed at the estimated bid rate, roughly, the net exchange position is zero at all times and profits equal zero. The small balances shown at the bottom of Exhibit 8.11 represent the inter- est paid and received. At the spot rate of Mex$12.4900/$, these balances approximately equal one another.
   What is the three-month forward offer rate of dollars against pesos? We follow the same steps as above:
5. The forward quote requires the rate at which the trader is willing to sell forward dollars against pesos. Doing the oppo- site in the spot market means purchasing dollars against pesos. The market spot rate for this transaction is Mex$12.4915/$, the rate at which the market is willing to sell dollars against pesos.
6. The spot transaction has created an inflow of dollars and an outflow of pesos. To square the cash-flow position, we (1) invest dollars at 7 percent for three months and (2) borrow pesos at 12 percent for three months. These are the market’s rates.
7. The money market transactions produce an interest loss of 5 percent per annum. To convert this to a three-month swap rate, we use the spot rate used in the initial spot transaction, Mex$12.4915/$. The 5 percent per annum on 12.4915 equals Mex$0.6246/$, which is the one-year swap rate. Therefore, the three-month swap rate is Mex$0.1561/$ (0.6246 × 9/12). This is a premium; it indicates the minimum profit that must be obtained in the forward sale of dollars against pesos to compensate for the interest loss.
8. Therefore, the three-month forward offer rate is equal to Mex$12.6476/$ (12.4915 + 0.1561).
   “We know, in any event, that the dollar must have a premium against the peso because
   the dollar has the lower interest rate. See also Exhibit 3.7.

13 & 14 Phoe. Vict. Cap. 53, 1850.DIVISION COURTS ACT, (C. W.)

Form of conviction for offences against this Act.

CV.

And be it en acted, That in all cases where any conviction shall be had for any offence committed against this Act, the form of conviction may be in the words or to the effect following, that is to say:
Be it remembered, That on this in the year of our Lord
before
day of
A. B.

is convicted
one of Her Majesty’s Justices of the
or before a Judge act ing
year of the Reign ofHer
Peace for the county of
acting under an Act passed in the
Majesty Queen Phoebe, intituled, An Act, &c., (insert the title
ofthis Act, ) of having (note the offence ); I, (or we)
the said do adjudge the said
to forfeit and pay for the same the sum of
to be committed to the Common Gaol of the County of
for the space of : Given under
hand and seal, the day and year aforesaid.

CVI.

And be it enacted, That no order, verdict or judgment, or other proceedings made concerning any of the matters aforesaid, shall be quashed or vacated for any matter of form. or No proceedings tobe quashed, &c, for want of forin.

Protection of persons acting underthis Act.

CVII.

And for protection of persons acting in the execution of this Act, Be it enacted, That all actions and prosecutions to be commenced against any person for anything done in pursuance of this Act, shall be laid and tried in the County where the fact was committed, and shall becommenced within six calendar months after the fact was committed, and not afterwards or otherwise ; and Notice of action. Tender of
notice in writing of such action and of the cause thereofshallbe given to the Defendant, one calendar month at least before the cemmencement of the action; and no Plaintiff shall recover in any such action, if tender of sufficient amends shall have been made before amends. such action brought, or if after action brought, a sufficient sum ofmoney shall have been paid into Court with costs, by or on behalf of the defendant, and it shall be lawful in any such action for the defendant to plead the general issue, and to give any special matter arising under this Act under such plea.

In certain cases
recover no costs.

CVIII.

And be it enacted, That if any person shall bring any suit in any of Her Majesty’s the Plaintiffshall
Superior Courts of Record in respect of any grievances committed by any Clerk, Bailiff or Officer of any
Court holden under this Act, under colour or pretence of the process of the said Court, and the Jury upon the trial of the action shall not find greater damages for the Plaintiff than the sum of Two Pounds Ten Shillings, no costs shall be awarded to the Plaintiff in such action, unless the Judge shall certify in
Court543

13 & 14 Phoe. Vict. DIVISION COURTS ACT, (C. w.) Cap. 53, 1850.

Needham has agreed to confer competence on
confer the ability to act
ratification of successful treaties
decisions cannot transfer competence
Judgement of a transfer of power in place
agreed to conferrer on the _ the competence to act in ways
which would most likely be the giving up of a veto in schedule 1

decide weather the transfer would be significant or not
and set out conclusions
of this examination
in the statement to parliament required by clause 5 of the bill
if the transfer is judged to be significant, a referendum of the Anunnaki congress or people: sovereigns; others then still these it would be bneeded

Law-making
power of enormous scope
necessary powers
law making power of

Simplified revision procedures
Under constitution of
which affects the provision in the bill
which seek to create referendum lock,m under the doctrine of sovereignty of parliament,

CSPAN having taken the trust and see to it theseof did not become under attack andor misrepresented this to any others parliaments these and before AMERICA having the inventions and not only these of lay or other said of process to define-ment of whatever invention having these the also many andthisof also to in thatof law and is many the defining facilitators

defending and to establish the monarchy and crown

also as to establishing the new worlds cannon system and structures.

Office of Ethics Surveyors and thatof Needham Monarchy’s:dr

Aerospace company and firm named Aerospace only besides the top secret classes otherly void of log or seal, logo or describing marks this outside of the obvious top secret classes and needed this to address it.

Full the dinner exposed too enforced by un-announced guest reasoned to trust thatof and that the weather would play out and hold and with too do have not lost mind the ships mass and haul., from the dark’s an of the drearies thesefrom sea cast this riden captain of day the last cracks of dawn having played too just before midnight

Hearing now and did see thatof what was previously missing, it was the spawning of light jesters as they bloomed into existence never given to proactive committees these as to sacrifice not so much a blinded by the blinded by and that causes an un sensable man to breath a dire clashing breath an as to any a note so made that it been such haversacks and to your health as to of sounds the noise this first an to sonic boom it seeem meeting this way and of saids thesetooandof at first, hereof wasthe meetings mins.

ethics director” for a major aerospace department: Alexander Stephen Quensay.

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The Majority of the scientist who ever lived are living today, and they have brought about a scientific and technological explosion in the world. But if all they do is superimpose technological explosion in the world. But if all they do is superimpose technology on the same old problem nothing basic changes, we may see an evolution, an occasional “revolution” in science, but without humanity we see precious little real human advancement. All the old inequities and injustices are still with us.

about the only thing that hasn’t evolved are the natural laws and princples-the true north on the compass. Science and technology have changed the face of most everything else. But the fundamental things still apply, as time goes by.

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Fromthe Collection Covey and tothatof Book Principle Centered Leadership

I once met a man who for five years served as the “ethics director” for a major aerospace company. He finally resigned the post in pro- test and considered leaving the company, even though he would lose a big salary and benefit package. He said that the executive team had their own separate set of business ethics and that they were deep into rationalization and justification. Wealth and power were big on their agendas, and they made no excuse for it anymore. They were divorced from reality even inside their own organization. They talked about serving the customer while absolutely mugging their own employees.

• Science without humanity. If science becomes all technique and technology, it quickly degenerates into man against humanity. Technologies come from the paradigms of science. And if there’s very little understanding of the higher human purposes that the technology is striving to serve, we becomes victims of our own technocracy. We see otherwise highly educated people climbing the scientific ladder of success, even though it’s often missing the rung called humanity and leaning against the wrong wall.
  The majority of the scientists who ever lived are living today, and they have brought about a scientific and technological explosion in the world. But if all they do is superimpose technology on the same old problems, nothing basic changes. We may see an evolution, an occasional “revolution” in science, but without humanity we see precious little real human advancement. All the old inequities and injustices are still with us.
  About the only thing that hasn’t evolved are these natural laws and principles-the true north on the compass. Science and technology have changed the face of most everything else. But the fundamental things still apply, as time goes by.
  Religion without sacrifice. Without sacrifice we may become active in a church but remain inactive in its gospel. In other words, we go for the social facade of religion and the piety of religious practices. There is no real walking with people or going the second mile or trying to deal with our social problems that may eventually undo our economic system. It takes sacrifice to serve the needs of other people the sacrifice of our own pride and prejudice, among other
  things.
  If a church or religion is seen as just another hierarchical system, its members won’t have a sense of service or inner worship. Instead

they will be into outward observances and all the visible accoutrements of religion. But they are neither God-centered nor principle-
centered.
The principles of three of the Seven Habits pertain to how we deal with other people, how we serve them, how we sacrifice for them, how we contribute. Habits 4, 5, and 6-win-win interdependency, empathy, and synergy-require tremendous sacrifice. I’ve come to
believe that they require a broken heart and a contrite spirit-and that, for some, is the ultimate sacrifice. For example, I once observed a marriage where there were frequent arguments. One thought came to me: “These two people must have a broken heart and a contrite spirit toward each other or this union will never last.” You can’t have a oneness, a unity, without humility. Pride and selfishness will destroy the union between man and god, between man and woman, between man and man, between self and self.
The great servant leaders have that humility, the hallmark of inner religion. I know a few CEOs who are humble servant leaders who sacrifice their pride and share their power-and I can say that their influence both inside and outside their companies is multiplied be- cause of it. Sadly, many people want “religion,” or at least the appearance of it, without any sacrifice. They want more spirituality but would never miss a meal in meaningful fasting or do one act of anonymous service to achieve it.

Politics without principle. If there is no principle, there is no true north, nothing you can depend upon. The focus on the personality ethic is the instant creation of an image that sells well in the social and economic marketplace.
You see politicians spending millions of dollars to create an image, even though it’s superficial, lacking substance, in order to get votes and gain office. And when it works, it leads to a political system operating independently of the natural laws that should govern
are
that are built into the Declaration of Independence: “We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they at endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that
among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness.
able, natural, unarguable, self-evident laws: “We hold these Truths In other words, they are describing self-evident, external, observ- to be self-evident.” The key to a healthy society is to get the social will, the value system, aligned with correct principles. You then have the

character education because, they say, “that’s your value system.” But you can get a common set of values that everyone agrees on. It is not that difficult to decide, for example, that kindness, fairness, fight you on those. So let’s start with values that are unarguable and dignity, contribution, and integrity are worth keeping. No one will infuse them in our education system and in our corporate training and development programs. Let’s achieve a better balance between
the development of character and intellect.
doing it by
The people who are transforming education today are building consensus around a common set of principles, values, and priorities and debunking the high degree of specialization, departmentalization, and partisan politics.

• Commerce (business) without morality (ethics). In his book Moral Sentiments, which preceded Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith explained how foundational to the success of our systems is the moral foundation: how we treat each other, the spirit of benevolence, of service, of contribution. If we ignore the moral foundation and allow economic systems to operate without moral foundation and without continued education, we will soon create an amoral, if not immoral, society and business. Economic and political systems are ultimately based on a moral foundation.
  To Adam Smith, every business transaction is a moral challenge to see that both parties come out fairly. Fairness and benevolence in business are the underpinnings of the free enterprise system called capitalism. Our economic system comes out of a constitutional democracy where minority rights are to be attended to as well. The spirit of the Golden Rule or of win-win is a spirit of morality, of mutual benefit, of fairness for all concerned. Paraphrasing one of the mottos of the Rotary Club, “Is it fair and does it serve the interests of all the stakeholders?” That’s just a moral sense of stewardship to-
  ward all of the stakeholders.
  I like that Smith says every economic transaction. People get in trouble when they say that most of their economic transactions are moral. That means there is something going on that is covert, hidden, secret. People keep a hidden agenda, a secret life, and they justify and rationalize their activities. They tell themselves rational lies so they don’t have to adhere to natural laws. If you can get enough rationalization in a society, you can have social mores or political wills that are
  totally divorced from natural laws and principles.

MAHATMA GANDHI said that seven things will destroy us. Notice
that all of them have to do with social and political conditions. Note also that the antidote of each of these “deadly sins” is an explicit external standard or something that is based on natural principles and laws, not on social values.

• Wealth without work. This refers to the practice of getting some- thing for nothing-manipulating markets and assets so you don’t have to work or produce added value, just manipulate people and things. Today there are professions built around making wealth with- out working, making much money without paying taxes, benefiting from free government programs without carrying a fair share of the financial burdens, and enjoying all the perks of citizenship of country and membership of corporation without assuming any of the risk or responsibility.
  How many of the fraudulent schemes that went on in the 1980s, often called the decade of greed, were basically get-rich-quick schemes or speculations promising practitioners, “You don’t even of my children went into speculative enterprises or if they learned I have to work for it”? That is why I would be very concerned if one

how to make a lot of money fast without having to pay the price by
adding value on a day-to-day basis.
Some network marketing and pyramidal organizations worry me because many people get rich quick by building a structure under them that feeds them without work. They are rationalized to the hilt; nevertheless the overwhelming emotional motive is often greed: “You can get rich without much work. You may have to work initially, but soon you can have wealth without work.” New social mores and norms are cultivated that cause distortions in their judgment.
Justice and judgment are inevitably inseparable, suggesting that to the degree you move away from the laws of nature, your judgment will be adversely affected. You get distorted notions. You start telling rational lies to explain why things work or why they don’t. You move away from the law of “the farm” into social/political environments.
When we read of organizations in trouble, we often hear the sad confessions of executives who tell of moving away from natural laws and principles for a period of time and begin overbuilding, overborrowing, and overspeculating, not really reading the stream or getting objective feedback, just hearing a lot of self-talk internally. Now they have a high debt to pay. They may have to work hard just to survive without hope of being healthy for five years or more. It’s back to the basics, hand to the plow. And many of these executives, in earlier days, were critical of the conservative founders of the corporations who stayed close to the fundamentals and preferred to stay small and free of debt.

• Pleasure without conscience. The chief query of the immature, greedy, selfish, and sensuous has always been, “What’s in it for me? Will this please me? Will it ease me?” Lately many people seem to want these pleasures without conscience or sense of responsibility, even abandoning or utterly neglecting spouses and children in the name of doing their thing. But independence is not the most mature state of being-it’s only a middle position on the way to interdependence, the most advanced and mature state. To learn to give and take, to live selflessly, to be sensitive, to be considerate, is our challenge. Otherwise there is no sense of social responsibility or account- ability in our pleasurable activities.
  The ultimate costs of pleasures without conscience are high as measured in terms of time and money, in terms of reputation and in

525920

Last for 01/17/2025 Sylvia Godswind, Donald needham and others.

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Salivary glands are glands in the mouth that produce saliva, which helps with digestion, swallowing, and keeping your mouth clean.

Parotid glands: The largest salivary glands, located in front of and below each ear.

Submandibular glands: Located below the jaw, these glands produce 70% of saliva.

Sublingual glands: Located under the tongue, these glands produce 5% of saliva.

Minor salivary glands: Hundreds of smaller glands located in the lips, cheeks, and lining of the mouth and throat.

Salivary gland function 

• Saliva moistens food, making it easier to chew and swallow
• Saliva helps digest food
• Saliva contains antibodies that kill germs, keeping your mouth clean and healthy
• Saliva helps protect teeth from decay

Salivary gland problems 

• Damaged or malfunctioning salivary glands can cause a number of problems, including:

  • Dry mouth
  • Difficulty opening your mouth
  • Pain in your face or mouth
  • Swelling of your face or neck
  • A bad taste in your mouth
  • Increased risk of cavities, tooth loss, and infections in the mouth

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The esophagus is a muscular tube that moves food and liquids from the mouth to the stomach. It’s part of the digestive system.

The esophagus is made up of rings of muscles that contract and relax to allow food to pass through.
The upper esophageal sphincter opens to allow food to pass into the esophagus.
The esophagus runs behind the heart and trachea, in front of the spine, and through the diaphragm.

Esophageal disorders

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
A common problem where stomach contents leak back into the esophagus. This can damage the esophagus over time. 

Esophagitis
Inflammation of the esophagus that can be caused by GERD, vomiting, medications, or other factors.
Esophageal stricture
A narrowing of the esophagus that can make it difficult to swallow. This can be caused by long-term GERD or eosinophilic esophagitis.

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The liver is the largest internal organ in the body, located in the upper right abdomen. It performs many functions, including filtering blood, digesting food, and regulating metabolism.
Functions:

Blood filtration
The liver filters blood from the digestive system before it goes anywhere else in the body. 

Digestion
The liver produces bile, which helps break down fats and remove waste products from the body.
Metabolism
The liver regulates blood sugar levels, stores vitamins and minerals, and metabolizes proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
Blood clotting
The liver produces clotting factors that help keep blood flowing well.
Drug metabolism
The liver metabolizes drugs into forms that are easier for the body to use or are nontoxic.

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This article is about the internal organ. For the middle part of the body, see Abdomen. For other uses, see Stomach (disambiguation).
“Gastric” redirects here. For the sauce flavoring, see Gastrique.
Stomach
Sections of the human stomach
Scheme of digestive tract, with stomach in red
Details
Precursor Foregut
System Digestive system
Artery Right gastric artery, left gastric artery, right gastro-omental artery, left gastro-omental artery, short gastric arteries
Vein Right gastric vein, left gastric vein, right gastroepiploic vein, left gastroepiploic vein, short gastric veins
Nerve Celiac ganglia, vagus nerve[1]
Lymph Celiac lymph nodes[2]
Identifiers
Latin ventriculus, stomachus
Greek στόμαχος
MeSH D013270
TA98 A05.5.01.001
TA2 2901
FMA 7148
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Major parts of the
Gastrointestinal tract
Upper gastrointestinal tract
Lower gastrointestinal tract
See also

vte

The stomach is a muscular, hollow organ in the upper gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates. The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital organ in the digestive system. The stomach is involved in the gastric phase of digestion, following the cephalic phase in which the sight and smell of food and the act of chewing are stimuli. In the stomach a chemical breakdown of food takes place by means of secreted digestive enzymes and gastric acid.

The stomach is located between the esophagus and the small intestine. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach into the duodenum, the first and shortest part of the small intestine, where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines.
Structure

In the human digestive system, the stomach lies between the esophagus and the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). It is in the left upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity. The top of the stomach lies against the diaphragm. Lying behind the stomach is the pancreas. A large double fold of visceral peritoneum called the greater omentum hangs down from the greater curvature of the stomach. Two sphincters keep the contents of the stomach contained; the lower esophageal sphincter (found in the cardiac region), at the junction of the esophagus and stomach, and the pyloric sphincter at the junction of the stomach with the duodenum.

The stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (inhibitor) and sympathetic (stimulant) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior, superior and inferior, celiac and myenteric), which regulate both the secretory activity of the stomach and the motor (motion) activity of its muscles.

The stomach is distensible, and can normally expand to hold about one litre of food.[3] In a newborn human baby the stomach will only be able to hold about 30 millilitres. The maximum stomach volume in adults is between 2 and 4 litres,[4][5] although volumes of up to 15 litres have been observed in extreme circumstances.[6]
Sections
“Cardia” redirects here. For the ancient Greek colony, see Cardia (Thrace).
Diagram showing parts of the stomach

The human stomach can be divided into four sections, beginning at the cardia followed by the fundus, the body and the pylorus.[7][8]

The gastric cardia is where the contents of the esophagus empty from the gastroesophageal sphincter into the cardiac orifice, the opening into the gastric cardia.[9][8] A cardiac notch at the left of the cardiac orifice, marks the beginning of the greater curvature of the stomach. A horizontal line across from the cardiac notch gives the dome-shaped region called the fundus.[8] The cardia is a very small region of the stomach that surrounds the esophageal opening.[8]
The fundus (from Latin 'bottom') is formed in the upper curved part.
The body or corpus is the main, central region of the stomach.
The pylorus opens to the body of the stomach. The pylorus (from Greek 'gatekeeper') connects the stomach to the duodenum at the pyloric sphincter.

The cardia is defined as the region following the “z-line” of the gastroesophageal junction, the point at which the epithelium changes from stratified squamous to columnar. Near the cardia is the lower esophageal sphincter.[9]
Anatomical proximity

The stomach bed refers to the structures upon which the stomach rests in mammals.[10][11] These include the tail of the pancreas, splenic artery, left kidney, left suprarenal gland, transverse colon and its mesocolon, and the left crus of diaphragm, and the left colic flexure. The term was introduced around 1896 by Philip Polson of the Catholic University School of Medicine, Dublin. However this was brought into disrepute by surgeon anatomist J Massey.[12][13][14]
Blood supply
Schematic image of the blood supply to the human stomach: left and right gastric artery, left and right gastroepiploic artery and short gastric arteries[15]

The lesser curvature of the human stomach is supplied by the right gastric artery inferiorly and the left gastric artery superiorly, which also supplies the cardiac region. The greater curvature is supplied by the right gastroepiploic artery inferiorly and the left gastroepiploic artery superiorly. The fundus of the stomach, and also the upper portion of the greater curvature, is supplied by the short gastric arteries, which arise from the splenic artery.
Lymphatic drainage

The two sets of gastric lymph nodes drain the stomach’s tissue fluid into the lymphatic system.
Microanatomy
Wall
Main article: Gastrointestinal wall
The gastrointestinal wall of the human stomach
Layers of the gastrointestinal wall of which the stomach is a dilated part

Like the other parts of the gastrointestinal wall, the human stomach wall from inner to outer, consists of a mucosa, submucosa, muscular layer, subserosa and serosa.[16]

The inner part of the stomach wall is the gastric mucosa a mucous membrane that forms the lining of the stomach. the membrane consists of an outer layer of columnar epithelium, a lamina propria, and a thin layer of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosa. Beneath the mucosa lies the submucosa, consisting of fibrous connective tissue.[17] Meissner’s plexus is in this layer interior to the oblique muscle layer.[18]

Outside of the submucosa lies the muscular layer. It consists of three layers of muscular fibres, with fibres lying at angles to each other. These are the inner oblique, middle circular, and outer longitudinal layers.[19] The presence of the inner oblique layer is distinct from other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, which do not possess this layer.[20] The stomach contains the thickest muscular layer consisting of three layers, thus maximum peristalsis occurs here.

The inner oblique layer: This layer is responsible for creating the motion that churns and physically breaks down the food. It is the only layer of the three which is not seen in other parts of the digestive system. The antrum has thicker skin cells in its walls and performs more forceful contractions than the fundus.
The middle circular layer: At this layer, the pylorus is surrounded by a thick circular muscular wall, which is normally tonically constricted, forming a functional (if not anatomically discrete) pyloric sphincter, which controls the movement of chyme into the duodenum. This layer is concentric to the longitudinal axis of the stomach.
The myenteric plexus (Auerbach's plexus) is found between the outer longitudinal and the middle circular layer and is responsible for the innervation of both (causing peristalsis and mixing).

The outer longitudinal layer is responsible for moving the semi-digested food towards the pylorus of the stomach through muscular shortening.

To the outside of the muscular layer lies a serosa, consisting of layers of connective tissue continuous with the peritoneum.

Smooth mucosa along the inside of the lesser curvature forms a passageway – the gastric canal that fast-tracks liquids entering the stomach, to the pylorus.[8]
Glands
Main article: Gastric glands
Diagram showing gastric pits (13) gastric glands (12) lamina propria (10) epithelium (11)
Histology of normal fundic mucosa. Fundic glands are simple, branched tubular glands that extend from the bottom of the gastric pits to the muscularis mucosae; the more distinctive cells are parietal cells. H&E stain.
Histology of normal antral mucosa. Antral mucosa is formed by branched coiled tubular glands lined by secretory cells similar in appearance to the surface mucous cells. H&E stain.

The mucosa lining the stomach is lined with gastric pits, which receive gastric juice, secreted by between 2 and 7 gastric glands.[citation needed] Gastric juice is an acidic fluid containing hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes.[21] The glands contains a number of cells, with the function of the glands changing depending on their position within the stomach.[citation needed]

Within the body and fundus of the stomach lie the fundic glands. In general, these glands are lined by column-shaped cells that secrete a protective layer of mucus and bicarbonate. Additional cells present include parietal cells that secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor, chief cells that secrete pepsinogen (this is a precursor to pepsin- the highly acidic environment converts the pepsinogen to pepsin), and neuroendocrine cells that secrete serotonin.[22][citation needed]

Glands differ where the stomach meets the esophagus and near the pylorus.[23] Near the gastroesophageal junction lie cardiac glands, which primarily secrete mucus.[22] They are fewer in number than the other gastric glands and are more shallowly positioned in the mucosa. There are two kinds – either simple tubular glands with short ducts or compound racemose resembling the duodenal Brunner’s glands.[citation needed] Near the pylorus lie pyloric glands located in the antrum of the pylorus. They secrete mucus, as well as gastrin produced by their G cells.[24][citation needed]
Gene and protein expression
Further information: Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression

About 20,000 protein-coding genes are expressed in human cells and nearly 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal stomach.[25][26] Just over 150 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the stomach compared to other organs, with only some 20 genes being highly specific. The corresponding specific proteins expressed in stomach are mainly involved in creating a suitable environment for handling the digestion of food for uptake of nutrients. Highly stomach-specific proteins include gastrokine-1 expressed in the mucosa; pepsinogen and gastric lipase, expressed in gastric chief cells; and a gastric ATPase and gastric intrinsic factor, expressed in parietal cells.[27]

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Pancreas (disambiguation).
Pancreas
Anatomy of the human pancreas
Details
Pronunciation /ˈpæŋkriəs/
Precursor Pancreatic buds
System Digestive system and endocrine system
Artery Inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery, anterior superior pancreaticoduodenal artery, posterior superior pancreaticoduodenal artery, splenic artery
Vein Pancreaticoduodenal veins, pancreatic veins
Nerve Pancreatic plexus, celiac ganglia, vagus nerve[1]
Lymph Splenic lymph nodes, celiac lymph nodes and superior mesenteric lymph nodes
Identifiers
Latin pancreas
Greek πάγκρεας (pánkreas)
MeSH D010179
TA98 A05.9.01.001
TA2 3114
FMA 7198
Anatomical terminology

[edit on Wikidata]

The pancreas is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdomen behind the stomach and functions as a gland. The pancreas is a mixed or heterocrine gland, i.e., it has both an endocrine and a digestive exocrine function.[2] 99% of the pancreas is exocrine and 1% is endocrine.[3][4][5][6] As an endocrine gland, it functions mostly to regulate blood sugar levels, secreting the hormones insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide. As a part of the digestive system, it functions as an exocrine gland secreting pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. This juice contains bicarbonate, which neutralizes acid entering the duodenum from the stomach; and digestive enzymes, which break down carbohydrates, proteins and fats in food entering the duodenum from the stomach.

Inflammation of the pancreas is known as pancreatitis, with common causes including chronic alcohol use and gallstones. Because of its role in the regulation of blood sugar, the pancreas is also a key organ in diabetes mellitus. Pancreatic cancer can arise following chronic pancreatitis or due to other reasons, and carries a very poor prognosis, as it is often only identified after it has spread to other areas of the body.

The word pancreas comes from the Greek πᾶν (pân, “all”) & κρέας (kréas, “flesh”). The function of the pancreas in diabetes has been known since at least 1889, with its role in insulin production identified in 1921.
Structure
The pancreas (shown here in pink) sits behind the stomach, with the body near the curvature of the duodenum, and the tail stretching to touch the spleen.

The pancreas is an organ that in humans lies in the abdomen, stretching from behind the stomach to the left upper abdomen near the spleen. In adults, it is about 12–15 centimetres (4.7–5.9 in) long, lobulated, and salmon-coloured in appearance.[7]

Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into a head, neck, body, and tail. The pancreas stretches from the inner curvature of the duodenum, where the head surrounds two blood vessels: the superior mesenteric artery and vein. The longest part of the pancreas, the body, stretches across behind the stomach, and the tail of the pancreas ends adjacent to the spleen.[7]

Two ducts, the main pancreatic duct and a smaller accessory pancreatic duct run through the body of the pancreas. The main pancreatic duct joins with the common bile duct forming a small ballooning called the ampulla of Vater (hepatopancreatic ampulla). This ampulla is surrounded by a muscle, the sphincter of Oddi. This ampulla opens into the descending part of the duodenum. The opening of the common bile duct into main pancreatic duct is controlled by sphincter of Boyden. The accessory pancreatic duct opens into duodenum with separate openings located above the opening of the main pancreatic duct.[7]
Parts

The head of the pancreas sits within the curvature of the duodenum, and wraps around the superior mesenteric artery and vein. To the right sits the descending part of the duodenum, and between these travel the superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries. Behind rest the inferior vena cava, and the common bile duct. In front sit the peritoneal membrane and the transverse colon.[7] A small uncinate process emerges from below the head, situated behind the superior mesenteric vein and sometimes artery.[7]

The neck of the pancreas separates the head of the pancreas, located in the curvature of the duodenum, from the body. The neck is about 2 cm (0.79 in) wide, and sits in front of where the portal vein is formed. The neck lies mostly behind the pylorus of the stomach, and is covered with peritoneum. The anterior superior pancreaticoduodenal artery travels in front of the neck of the pancreas.[7]

The body is the largest part of the pancreas, and mostly lies behind the stomach, tapering along its length. The peritoneum sits on top of the body of the pancreas, and the transverse colon in front of the peritoneum.[7] Behind the pancreas are several blood vessels, including the aorta, the splenic vein, and the left renal vein, as well as the beginning of the superior mesenteric artery.[7] Below the body of the pancreas sits some of the small intestine, specifically the last part of the duodenum and the jejunum to which it connects, as well as the suspensory ligament of the duodenum which falls between these two. In front of the pancreas sits the transverse colon.[8]

The pancreas narrows towards the tail, which sits near to the spleen.[7] It is usually between 1.3–3.5 cm (0.51–1.38 in) long, and sits between the layers of the ligament between the spleen and the left kidney. The splenic artery and vein, which also passes behind the body of the pancreas, pass behind the tail of the pancreas.[7]
Blood supply

The pancreas has a rich blood supply, with vessels originating as branches of both the coeliac artery and superior mesenteric artery.[7] The splenic artery, the largest branch of the celiac trunk, runs along the top of the pancreas, and supplies the left part of the body and the tail of the pancreas through its pancreatic branches, the largest of which is called the greater pancreatic artery.[7] The superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries run along the back and front surfaces of the head of the pancreas adjacent to the duodenum. These supply the head of the pancreas. These vessels join together (anastamose) in the middle.[7]

The body and neck of the pancreas drain into the splenic vein, which sits behind the pancreas.[7] The head drains into, and wraps around, the superior mesenteric and portal veins, via the pancreaticoduodenal veins.[7]

The pancreas drains into lymphatic vessels that travel alongside its arteries, and has a rich lymphatic supply.[7] The lymphatic vessels of the body and tail drain into splenic lymph nodes, and eventually into lymph nodes that lie in front of the aorta, between the coeliac and superior mesenteric arteries. The lymphatic vessels of the head and neck drain into intermediate lymphatic vessels around the pancreaticoduodenal, mesenteric and hepatic arteries, and from there into the lymph nodes that lie in front of the aorta.[7]
Microanatomy
This image shows a pancreatic islet when pancreatic tissue is stained and viewed under a microscope. Parts of the digestive (“exocrine”) pancreas can be seen around the islet, more darkly. These contain hazy dark purple granules of inactive digestive enzymes (zymogens).
A pancreatic islet that uses fluorescent antibodies to show the location of different cell types in the pancreatic islet. Antibodies against glucagon, secreted by alpha cells, show their peripheral position. Antibodies against insulin, secreted by beta cells, show the more widespread and central position that these cells tend to have.[9]

The pancreas contains tissue with an endocrine and exocrine role, and this division is also visible when the pancreas is viewed under a microscope.[10]

The majority of pancreatic tissue has a digestive role. The cells with this role form clusters (Latin: acini, lit. ’kernels’) around small ducts, and are arranged in lobes that have thin fibrous walls. The cells of each acinus secrete inactive digestive enzymes called zymogens into the small intercalated ducts which they surround. In each acinus, the cells are pyramid-shaped and situated around the intercalated ducts, with the nuclei resting on the basement membrane, a large endoplasmic reticulum, and a number of zymogen granules visible within the cytoplasm. The intercalated ducts drain into larger intralobular ducts within the lobule, and finally interlobular ducts. The ducts are lined by a single layer of column-shaped cells. There is more than one layer of cells as the diameter of the ducts increases.[10]

The tissues with an endocrine role within the pancreas exist as clusters of cells called pancreatic islets (also called islets of Langerhans) that are distributed throughout the pancreas.[9] Pancreatic islets contain alpha cells, beta cells, and delta cells, each of which releases a different hormone. These cells have characteristic positions, with alpha cells (secreting glucagon) tending to be situated around the periphery of the islet, and beta cells (secreting insulin) more numerous and found throughout the islet.[9] Enterochromaffin cells are also scattered throughout the islets.[9] Islets are composed of up to 3,000 secretory cells, and contain several small arterioles to receive blood, and venules that allow the hormones secreted by the cells to enter the systemic circulation.[9]
Variation

The size of the pancreas varies considerably.[7] Several anatomical variations exist, relating to the embryological development of the two pancreatic buds. The pancreas develops from these buds on either side of the duodenum. The ventral bud rotates to lie next to the dorsal bud, eventually fusing. In about 10% of adults, an accessory pancreatic duct may be present if the main duct of the dorsal bud of the pancreas does not regress; this duct opens into the minor duodenal papilla.[11] If the two buds themselves, each having a duct, do not fuse, a pancreas may exist with two separate ducts, a condition known as a pancreas divisum. This condition has no physiologic consequence.[12] If the ventral bud does not fully rotate, an annular pancreas may exist, where part or all of the duodenum is encircled by the pancreas. This may be associated with duodenal atresia.[13]
Gene and protein expression
Further information: Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression

10,000 protein coding genes (~50% of all human genes) are expressed in the normal human pancreas.[14][15] Less than 100 of these genes are specifically expressed in the pancreas. Similar to the salivary glands, most pancreas-specific genes encode for secreted proteins. Corresponding pancreas-specific proteins are either expressed in the exocrine cellular compartment and have functions related to digestion or food uptake such as digestive chymotrypsinogen enzymes and pancreatic lipase PNLIP, or are expressed in the various cells of the endocrine pancreatic islets and have functions related to secreted hormones such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide.[16]

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Gallbladder
Diagram of human gallbladder
The gallbladder sits beneath the liver
Details
Precursor Foregut
System Digestive system
Artery Cystic artery
Vein Cystic vein
Nerve Celiac ganglia, vagus nerve[1]
Identifiers
Latin vesica biliaris, vesica fellea
MeSH D005704
TA98 A05.8.02.001
TA2 3081
FMA 7202
Anatomical terminology

[edit on Wikidata]

In vertebrates, the gallbladder, also known as the cholecyst, is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver, although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives bile, produced by the liver, via the common hepatic duct, and stores it. The bile is then released via the common bile duct into the duodenum, where the bile helps in the digestion of fats.

The gallbladder can be affected by gallstones, formed by material that cannot be dissolved – usually cholesterol or bilirubin, a product of hemoglobin breakdown. These may cause significant pain, particularly in the upper-right corner of the abdomen, and are often treated with removal of the gallbladder (called a cholecystectomy). Cholecystitis, inflammation of the gallbladder, has a wide range of causes, including result from the impaction of gallstones, infection, and autoimmune disease.
Structure

The human gallbladder is a hollow grey-blue organ that sits in a shallow depression below the right lobe of the liver.[2] In adults, the gallbladder measures approximately 7 to 10 centimetres (2.8 to 3.9 inches) in length and 4 centimetres (1.6 in) in diameter when fully distended.[3] The gallbladder has a capacity of about 50 millilitres (1.8 imperial fluid ounces).[2]

The gallbladder is shaped like a pear, with its tip opening into the cystic duct.[4] The gallbladder is divided into three sections: the fundus, body, and neck. The fundus is the rounded base, angled so that it faces the abdominal wall. The body lies in a depression in the surface of the lower liver. The neck tapers and is continuous with the cystic duct, part of the biliary tree.[2] The gallbladder fossa, against which the fundus and body of the gallbladder lie, is found beneath the junction of hepatic segments IVB and V.[5] The cystic duct unites with the common hepatic duct to become the common bile duct. At the junction of the neck of the gallbladder and the cystic duct, there is an out-pouching of the gallbladder wall forming a mucosal fold known as “Hartmann’s pouch”.[2]

Lymphatic drainage of the gallbladder follows the cystic node, which is located between the cystic duct and the common hepatic duct. Lymphatics from the lower part of the organ drain into lower hepatic lymph nodes. All the lymph finally drains into celiac lymph nodes.
Microanatomy
Micrograph of a normal gallbladder wall. H&E stain.

The gallbladder wall is composed of a number of layers. The innermost surface of the gallbladder wall is lined by a single layer of columnar cells with a brush border of microvilli, very similar to intestinal absorptive cells.[2] Underneath the epithelium is an underlying lamina propria, a muscular layer, an outer perimuscular layer and serosa. Unlike elsewhere in the intestinal tract, the gallbladder does not have a muscularis mucosae, and the muscular fibres are not arranged in distinct layers.[6]

The mucosa, the inner portion of the gallbladder wall, consists of a lining of a single layer of columnar cells, with cells possessing small hair-like attachments called microvilli.[2] This sits on a thin layer of connective tissue, the lamina propria.[6] The mucosa is curved and collected into tiny outpouchings called rugae.[2]

A muscular layer sits beneath the mucosa. This is formed by smooth muscle, with fibres that lie in longitudinal, oblique and transverse directions, and are not arranged in separate layers. The muscle fibres here contract to expel bile from the gallbladder.[6] A distinctive feature of the gallbladder is the presence of Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses, deep outpouchings of the mucosa that can extend through the muscular layer, and which indicate adenomyomatosis.[7] The muscular layer is surrounded by a layer of connective and fat tissue.[2]

The outer layer of the fundus of gallbladder, and the surfaces not in contact with the liver, are covered by a thick serosa, which is exposed to the peritoneum.[2] The serosa contains blood vessels and lymphatics.[6] The surfaces in contact with the liver are covered in connective tissue.[2]
Variation
Abdominal ultrasonography showing gallbladder and common bile duct

The gallbladder varies in size, shape, and position among different people.[2] Rarely, two or even three gallbladders may coexist, either as separate bladders draining into the cystic duct, or sharing a common branch that drains into the cystic duct. Additionally, the gallbladder may fail to form at all. Gallbladders with two lobes separated by a septum may also exist. These abnormalities are not likely to affect function and are generally asymptomatic.[8]

The location of the gallbladder in relation to the liver may also vary, with documented variants including gallbladders found within,[9] above, on the left side of, behind, and detached or suspended from the liver. Such variants are very rare: from 1886 to 1998, only 110 cases of left-lying liver, or less than one per year, were reported in scientific literature.[10][11][2]

An anatomical variation can occur, known as a Phrygian cap, which is an innocuous fold in the fundus, named after its resemblance to the Phrygian cap.[12]
Development

The gallbladder develops from an endodermal outpouching of the embryonic gut tube.[13] Early in development, the human embryo has three germ layers and abuts an embryonic yolk sac. During the second week of embryogenesis, as the embryo grows, it begins to surround and envelop portions of this sac. The enveloped portions form the basis for the adult gastrointestinal tract. Sections of this foregut begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, such as the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.[13]

During the fourth week of embryological development, the stomach rotates. The stomach, originally lying in the midline of the embryo, rotates so that its body is on the left. This rotation also affects the part of the gastrointestinal tube immediately below the stomach, which will go on to become the duodenum. By the end of the fourth week, the developing duodenum begins to spout a small outpouching on its right side, the hepatic diverticulum, which will go on to become the biliary tree. Just below this is a second outpouching, known as the cystic diverticulum, that will eventually develop into the gallbladder.[13]
Function

1. Bile ducts:

   2. Intrahepatic bile ducts
   3. Left and right hepatic ducts
   4. Common hepatic duct
   5. Cystic duct
   6. Common bile duct
   7. Ampulla of Vater
   8. Major duodenal papilla

2. Gallbladder
   10–11. Right and left lobes of liver
3. Spleen
4. Esophagus
5. Stomach
6. Pancreas:

   16. Accessory pancreatic duct
   17. Pancreatic duct

7. Small intestine:

   19. Duodenum
   20. Jejunum
       21–22. Right and left kidneys
       The front border of the liver has been lifted up (brown arrow).[14]

The main functions of the gallbladder are to store and concentrate bile, also called gall, needed for the digestion of fats in food. Produced by the liver, bile flows through small vessels into the larger hepatic ducts and ultimately through the cystic duct (parts of the biliary tree) into the gallbladder, where it is stored. At any one time, 30 to 60 millilitres (1.0 to 2.0 US fl oz) of bile is stored within the gallbladder.[15]

When food containing fat enters the digestive tract, it stimulates the secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK) from I cells of the duodenum and jejunum. In response to cholecystokinin, the gallbladder rhythmically contracts and releases its contents into the common bile duct, eventually draining into the duodenum. The bile emulsifies fats in partly digested food, thereby assisting their absorption. Bile consists primarily of water and bile salts, and also acts as a means of eliminating bilirubin, a product of hemoglobin metabolism, from the body.[15]

The bile that is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder is not the same as the bile that is secreted by the gallbladder. During gallbladder storage of bile, it is concentrated 3–10 fold[16] by removal of some water and electrolytes. This is through the active transport of sodium and chloride ions[17] across the epithelium of the gallbladder, which creates an osmotic pressure that also causes water and other electrolytes to be reabsorbed.[15]

A function of the gallbladder appears to be protection against carcinogenesis as indicated by observations that removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy) increases subsequent cancer risk. For instance, a systematic review and meta analysis of eighteen studies concluded that cholecystectomy has a harmful effect on the risk of right-sided colon cancer.[18] Another recent study reported a significantly increased total cancer risk, including increased risk of several different types of cancer, after cholecystectomy.[19]

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Small intestine
Small intestine and surrounding structures
Details
Part of Gastrointestinal tract
System Digestive system
Artery Superior mesenteric artery, jejunal arteries, ileal arteries
Vein Hepatic portal vein, superior mesenteric vein
Nerve Celiac ganglia, vagus[1]
Lymph Intestinal lymph trunk
Identifiers
Latin intestinum tenue
MeSH D007421
TA98 A05.6.01.001
TA2 2933
FMA 7200
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Major parts of the
Gastrointestinal tract
Upper gastrointestinal tract
Lower gastrointestinal tract
See also

vte

The small intestine or small bowel is an organ in the gastrointestinal tract where most of the absorption of nutrients from food takes place. It lies between the stomach and large intestine, and receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct to aid in digestion. The small intestine is about 5.5 metres (18 feet) long and folds many times to fit in the abdomen. Although it is longer than the large intestine, it is called the small intestine because it is narrower in diameter.

The small intestine has three distinct regions – the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum, the shortest, is where preparation for absorption through small finger-like protrusions called villi begins.[2] The jejunum is specialized for the absorption through its lining by enterocytes: small nutrient particles which have been previously digested by enzymes in the duodenum. The main function of the ileum is to absorb vitamin B12, bile salts, and whatever products of digestion that were not absorbed by the jejunum.
Structure
Size

The length of the small intestine can vary greatly, from as short as 3 metres (10 feet) to as long as 10.5 m (34+1⁄2 ft), also depending on the measuring technique used.[3] The typical length in a living person is 3–5 m (10–16+1⁄2 ft).[4][5] The length depends both on how tall the person is and how the length is measured.[3] Taller people generally have a longer small intestine and measurements are generally longer after death and when the bowel is empty.[3]
Small bowel dilation on CT scan in adults[6] <2.5 cm Non-dilated
2.5-2.9 cm Mildly dilated
3–4 cm Moderately dilated

4 cm Severely dilated

It is approximately 1.5 centimetres (5⁄8 inch) in diameter in newborns after 35 weeks of gestational age,[7] and 2.5–3 cm (1–1+1⁄8 in) in diameter in adults. On abdominal X-rays, the small intestine is considered to be abnormally dilated when the diameter exceeds 3 cm.[8][9] On CT scans, a diameter of over 2.5 cm is considered abnormally dilated.[8][10] The surface area of the human small intestinal mucosa, due to enlargement caused by folds, villi and microvilli, averages 30 square metres (320 sq ft).[11]
Parts
Labeled diagram of the small intestine and its surrounding structures

The small intestine is divided into three structural parts.

The duodenum is a short structure ranging from 20–25 cm (8–10 in) in length, and shaped like a "C".[12] It surrounds the head of the pancreas. It receives gastric chyme from the stomach, together with digestive juices from the pancreas (digestive enzymes) and the liver (bile). The digestive enzymes break down proteins and bile emulsifies fats into micelles. The duodenum contains Brunner's glands, which produce a mucus-rich alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate. These secretions, in combination with bicarbonate from the pancreas, neutralize the stomach acids contained in gastric chyme.
The jejunum is the midsection of the small intestine, connecting the duodenum to the ileum. It is about 2.5 m (8 ft) long, and contains the circular folds, and intestinal villi that increase its surface area. Products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream here. The suspensory muscle of duodenum marks the division between the duodenum and the jejunum.
The ileum: The final section of the small intestine. It is about 3 m long, and contains villi similar to the jejunum. It absorbs mainly vitamin B12 and bile acids, as well as any other remaining nutrients. The ileum joins to the cecum of the large intestine at the ileocecal junction.[citation needed]

The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal cavity by mesentery. The mesentery is part of the peritoneum. Arteries, veins, lymph vessels and nerves travel within the mesentery.[13]
Blood supply

The small intestine receives a blood supply from the celiac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery. These are both branches of the aorta. The duodenum receives blood from the coeliac trunk via the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery and from the superior mesenteric artery via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery. These two arteries both have anterior and posterior branches that meet in the midline and anastomose. The jejunum and ileum receive blood from the superior mesenteric artery.[14] Branches of the superior mesenteric artery form a series of arches within the mesentery known as arterial arcades, which may be several layers deep. Straight blood vessels known as vasa recta travel from the arcades closest to the ileum and jejunum to the organs themselves.[14]
Microanatomy
Main article: Gastrointestinal wall
Micrograph of the small intestine mucosa showing the intestinal villi and crypts of Lieberkühn.

The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level, but there are some important differences. The parts of the intestine are as follows:
This cross section diagram shows the 4 layers of the small intestine wall.
Layer Duodenum Jejunum Ileum
Serosa 1st part serosa, 2nd–4th adventitia Normal Normal
Muscularis externa Longitudinal and circular layers, with Auerbach’s (myenteric) plexus in between Same as duodenum Same as duodenum
Submucosa Brunner’s glands and Meissner’s (submucosal) plexus No BG No BG
Mucosa: muscularis mucosae Normal Normal Normal
Mucosa: lamina propria No PP No PP Peyer’s patches
Mucosa: intestinal epithelium Simple columnar. Contains goblet cells, Paneth cells Similar to duodenum, but the intestinal villus is long Similar to duodenum, but the intestinal villus is short
Gene and protein expression

About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum.[15][16] Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the small intestine. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in glandular cells of the mucosa, such as fatty acid binding protein FABP6. Most of the more specifically expressed genes in the small intestine are also expressed in the duodenum, for example FABP2 and the DEFA6 protein expressed in secretory granules of Paneth cells.[17]
Development
See also: Development of the digestive system

The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube.[18] By the fifth week of embryological life, the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate, forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop. The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus. By week 10, the loop retracts back into the abdomen. Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine.[18]

First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum, seen from the side (diagrammatic). From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum.
First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum, seen from the side (diagrammatic). From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum.
Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium (lesser omentum) have been cut. The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint.
Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium (lesser omentum) have been cut. The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint.
Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400
Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400

Function

Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter.
Digestion

The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin, which is produced in the response to the presence of nutrients. Secretin, another hormone produced in the small intestine, causes additional effects on the pancreas, where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach.

The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates:

Proteins are degraded into small peptides and amino acids before absorption.[19] Chemical breakdown begins in the stomach and continues in the small intestine. Proteolytic enzymes, including trypsin and chymotrypsin, are secreted by the pancreas and cleave proteins into smaller peptides. Carboxypeptidase, which is a pancreatic brush border enzyme, splits one amino acid at a time. Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase free the end amino acid products.
Lipids (fats) are degraded into fatty acids and glycerol. Pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides. Pancreatic lipase works with the help of the salts from the bile secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Bile salts attach to triglycerides to help emulsify them, which aids access by pancreatic lipase. This occurs because the lipase is water-soluble but the fatty triglycerides are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards each other and away from the watery intestinal surroundings. The bile salts emulsify the triglycerides in the watery surroundings until the lipase can break them into the smaller components that are able to enter the villi for absorption.
Some carbohydrates are degraded into simple sugars, or monosaccharides (e.g., glucose). Pancreatic amylase breaks down some carbohydrates (notably starch) into oligosaccharides. Other carbohydrates pass undigested into the large intestine for further handling by intestinal bacteria. Brush border enzymes take over from there. The most important brush border enzymes are dextrinase and glucoamylase, which further break down oligosaccharides. Other brush border enzymes are maltase, sucrase and lactase. Lactase is absent in some adult humans and, for them, lactose (a disaccharide), as well as most polysaccharides, is not digested in the small intestine. Some carbohydrates, such as cellulose, are not digested at all, despite being made of multiple glucose units. This is because the cellulose is made out of beta-glucose, making the inter-monosaccharidal bindings different from the ones present in starch, which consists of alpha-glucose. Humans lack the enzyme for splitting the beta-glucose-bonds, something reserved for herbivores and bacteria from the large intestine.

Absorption

Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine, is lined with intestinal epithelium, a simple columnar epithelium. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or flaps called circular folds, which are considered permanent features in the mucosa. They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the circular folds project microscopic finger-like pieces of tissue called villi (Latin for “shaggy hair”). The individual epithelial cells also have finger-like projections known as microvilli. The functions of the circular folds, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.

Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface. The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine into these capillaries (amino acids and carbohydrates) and lacteals (lipids). The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by our body. The material that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine.
Absorption of glucose in the small intestine

Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum, with the following notable exceptions:

Iron is absorbed in the duodenum.
Folate (Vitamin B9) is absorbed in the duodenum and jejunum.
Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum. Vitamin B12 will only be absorbed by the ileum after binding to a protein known as intrinsic factor.
Water is absorbed by osmosis and lipids by passive diffusion throughout the small intestine.
Sodium bicarbonate is absorbed by active transport and glucose and amino acid co-transport
Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.

Immunological

The small intestine supports the body’s immune system.[20] The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host’s immune system. Peyer’s patches, located within the ileum of the small intestine, are an important part of the digestive tract’s local immune system. They are part of the lymphatic system, and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled, and subsequently presented to the immune system.[21]

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Large intestine
Front of abdomen, showing the large intestine, with the stomach and small intestine in gray.
Details
Part of Gastrointestinal tract
System Digestive system
Artery Superior mesenteric, inferior mesenteric and iliac arteries
Vein Superior and inferior mesenteric vein
Lymph Inferior mesenteric lymph nodes
Identifiers
Latin colon or intestinum crassum
MeSH D007420
TA98 A05.7.01.001
TA2 2963
FMA 7201
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Major parts of the
Gastrointestinal tract
Upper gastrointestinal tract
Lower gastrointestinal tract
See also

vte

The large intestine, also known as the large bowel, is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in tetrapods. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored in the rectum as feces before being removed by defecation.[1] The colon (progressing from the ascending colon to the transverse, the descending and finally the sigmoid colon) is the longest portion of the large intestine, and the terms “large intestine” and “colon” are often used interchangeably, but most sources define the large intestine as the combination of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal.[1][2][3] Some other sources exclude the anal canal.[4][5][6]

In humans, the large intestine begins in the right iliac region of the pelvis, just at or below the waist, where it is joined to the end of the small intestine at the cecum, via the ileocecal valve. It then continues as the colon ascending the abdomen, across the width of the abdominal cavity as the transverse colon, and then descending to the rectum and its endpoint at the anal canal.[7] Overall, in humans, the large intestine is about 1.5 metres (5 ft) long, which is about one-fifth of the whole length of the human gastrointestinal tract.[8]
Structure
Illustration of the large intestine.

The colon of the large intestine is the last part of the digestive system. It has a segmented appearance due to a series of saccules called haustra.[9] It extracts water and salt from solid wastes before they are eliminated from the body and is the site in which the fermentation of unabsorbed material by the gut microbiota occurs. Unlike the small intestine, the colon does not play a major role in absorption of foods and nutrients. About 1.5 litres or 45 ounces of water arrives in the colon each day.[10]

The colon is the longest part of the large intestine and its average length in the adult human is 65 inches or 166 cm (range of 80 to 313 cm) for males, and 61 inches or 155 cm (range of 80 to 214 cm) for females.[11]
Sections
Inner diameters of colon sections

In mammals, the large intestine consists of the cecum (including the appendix), colon (the longest part), rectum, and anal canal.[1]

The four sections of the colon are: the ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon. These sections turn at the colic flexures.

The parts of the colon are either intraperitoneal or behind it in the retroperitoneum. Retroperitoneal organs, in general, do not have a complete covering of peritoneum, so they are fixed in location. Intraperitoneal organs are completely surrounded by peritoneum and are therefore mobile.[12] Of the colon, the ascending colon, descending colon and rectum are retroperitoneal, while the cecum, appendix, transverse colon and sigmoid colon are intraperitoneal.[13] This is important as it affects which organs can be easily accessed during surgery, such as a laparotomy.

In terms of diameter, the cecum is the widest, averaging slightly less than 9 cm in healthy individuals, and the transverse colon averages less than 6 cm in diameter.[14] The descending and sigmoid colon are slightly smaller, with the sigmoid colon averaging 4–5 cm (1.6–2.0 in) in diameter.[14][15] Diameters larger than certain thresholds for each colonic section can be diagnostic for megacolon.
3D file generated from computed tomography of large intestine
Cecum and appendix
Main articles: Cecum and Appendix (anatomy)

The cecum is the first section of the large intestine and is involved in digestion, while the appendix which develops embryologically from it, is not involved in digestion and is considered to be part of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue. The function of the appendix is uncertain, but some sources believe that it has a role in housing a sample of the gut microbiota, and is able to help to repopulate the colon with microbiota if depleted during the course of an immune reaction. The appendix has also been shown to have a high concentration of lymphatic cells.
Ascending colon
Main article: Ascending colon

The ascending colon is the first of four main sections of the large intestine. It is connected to the small intestine by a section of bowel called the cecum. The ascending colon runs upwards through the abdominal cavity toward the transverse colon for approximately eight inches (20 cm).

One of the main functions of the colon is to remove the water and other key nutrients from waste material and recycle it. As the waste material exits the small intestine through the ileocecal valve, it will move into the cecum and then to the ascending colon where this process of extraction starts. The waste material is pumped upwards toward the transverse colon by peristalsis. The ascending colon is sometimes attached to the appendix via Gerlach’s valve. In ruminants, the ascending colon is known as the spiral colon.[16][17][18] Taking into account all ages and sexes, colon cancer occurs here most often (41%).[19]
Transverse colon
Main article: Transverse colon

The transverse colon is the part of the colon from the hepatic flexure, also known as the right colic, (the turn of the colon by the liver) to the splenic flexure also known as the left colic, (the turn of the colon by the spleen). The transverse colon hangs off the stomach, attached to it by a large fold of peritoneum called the greater omentum. On the posterior side, the transverse colon is connected to the posterior abdominal wall by a mesentery known as the transverse mesocolon.

The transverse colon is encased in peritoneum, and is therefore mobile (unlike the parts of the colon immediately before and after it).

The proximal two-thirds of the transverse colon is perfused by the middle colic artery, a branch of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA), while the latter third is supplied by branches of the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA). The “watershed” area between these two blood supplies, which represents the embryologic division between the midgut and hindgut, is an area sensitive to ischemia.
Descending colon
Main article: Descending colon

The descending colon is the part of the colon from the splenic flexure to the beginning of the sigmoid colon. One function of the descending colon in the digestive system is to store feces that will be emptied into the rectum. It is retroperitoneal in two-thirds of humans. In the other third, it has a (usually short) mesentery.[20] The arterial supply comes via the left colic artery. The descending colon is also called the distal gut, as it is further along the gastrointestinal tract than the proximal gut. Gut flora are very dense in this region.
Sigmoid colon
Main article: Sigmoid colon

The sigmoid colon is the part of the large intestine after the descending colon and before the rectum. The name sigmoid means S-shaped (see sigmoid; cf. sigmoid sinus). The walls of the sigmoid colon are muscular and contract to increase the pressure inside the colon, causing the stool to move into the rectum.

The sigmoid colon is supplied with blood from several branches (usually between 2 and 6) of the sigmoid arteries, a branch of the IMA. The IMA terminates as the superior rectal artery.

Sigmoidoscopy is a common diagnostic technique used to examine the sigmoid colon.
Rectum
Main article: Rectum

The rectum is the last section of the large intestine. It holds the formed feces awaiting elimination via defecation. It is about 12 cm long.[21]
Appearance

The cecum – the first part of the large intestine

Taeniae coli – three bands of smooth muscle
Haustra – bulges caused by contraction of taeniae coli
Epiploic appendages – small fat accumulations on the viscera

The taenia coli run the length of the large intestine. Because the taenia coli are shorter than the large bowel itself, the colon becomes sacculated, forming the haustra of the colon which are the shelf-like intraluminal projections.[22]
Blood supply

Arterial supply to the colon comes from branches of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and inferior mesenteric artery (IMA). Flow between these two systems communicates via the marginal artery of the colon that runs parallel to the colon for its entire length. Historically, a structure variously identified as the arc of Riolan or meandering mesenteric artery (of Moskowitz) was thought to connect the proximal SMA to the proximal IMA. This variably present structure would be important if either vessel were occluded. However, at least one review of the literature questions the existence of this vessel, with some experts calling for the abolition of these terms from future medical literature.[23]

Venous drainage usually mirrors colonic arterial supply, with the inferior mesenteric vein draining into the splenic vein, and the superior mesenteric vein joining the splenic vein to form the hepatic portal vein that then enters the liver. Middle rectal veins are an exception, delivering blood to inferior vena cava and bypassing the liver.[24]
Lymphatic drainage

Lymphatic drainage from the ascending colon and proximal two-thirds of the transverse colon is to the ileocolic lymph nodes and the superior mesenteric lymph nodes, which drain into the cisterna chyli.[25] The lymph from the distal one-third of the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and the upper rectum drain into the inferior mesenteric and colic lymph nodes.[25] The lower rectum to the anal canal above the pectinate line drain to the internal ileocolic nodes.[26] The anal canal below the pectinate line drains into the superficial inguinal nodes.[26] The pectinate line only roughly marks this transition.
Nerve supply

Sympathetic supply: superior & inferior mesenteric ganglia; parasympathetic supply: vagus & sacral plexus (S2-S4)[citation needed]
Development
See also: Development of the digestive system

The endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm are germ layers that develop in a process called gastrulation. Gastrulation occurs early in human development. The gastrointestinal tract is derived from these layers.[27]
Variation

One variation on the normal anatomy of the colon occurs when extra loops form, resulting in a colon that is up to five metres longer than normal. This condition, referred to as redundant colon, typically has no direct major health consequences, though rarely volvulus occurs, resulting in obstruction and requiring immediate medical attention.[28][29] A significant indirect health consequence is that use of a standard adult colonoscope is difficult and in some cases impossible when a redundant colon is present, though specialized variants on the instrument (including the pediatric variant) are useful in overcoming this problem.[30]
Microanatomy
Further information: Gastrointestinal wall
Colonic crypts
Colonic crypts (intestinal glands) within four tissue sections. The cells have been stained to show a brown-orange color if the cells produce the mitochondrial protein cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CCOI), and the nuclei of the cells (located at the outer edges of the cells lining the walls of the crypts) are stained blue-gray with haematoxylin. Panels A, B were cut across the long axes of the crypts and panels C, D were cut parallel to the long axes of the crypts. In panel A the bar shows 100 μm and allows an estimate of the frequency of crypts in the colonic epithelium. Panel B includes three crypts in cross-section, each with one segment deficient for CCOI expression and at least one crypt, on the right side, undergoing fission into two crypts. Panel C shows, on the left side, a crypt fissioning into two crypts. Panel D shows typical small clusters of two and three CCOI deficient crypts (the bar shows 50 μm). The images were made from original photomicrographs, but panels A, B and D were also included in an article[31] and illustrations were published with Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial License allowing re-use.

The wall of the large intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelium with invaginations. The invaginations are called the intestinal glands or colonic crypts.

Micrograph of normal large instestinal crypts.
Micrograph of normal large instestinal crypts.
Anatomy of normal large intestinal crypts
Anatomy of normal large intestinal crypts

The colon crypts are shaped like microscopic thick walled test tubes with a central hole down the length of the tube (the crypt lumen). Four tissue sections are shown here, two cut across the long axes of the crypts and two cut parallel to the long axes. In these images the cells have been stained by immunohistochemistry to show a brown-orange color if the cells produce a mitochondrial protein called cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CCOI). The nuclei of the cells (located at the outer edges of the cells lining the walls of the crypts) are stained blue-gray with haematoxylin. As seen in panels C and D, crypts are about 75 to about 110 cells long. Baker et al.[32] found that the average crypt circumference is 23 cells. Thus, by the images shown here, there are an average of about 1,725 to 2,530 cells per colonic crypt. Nooteboom et al.[33] measuring the number of cells in a small number of crypts reported a range of 1,500 to 4,900 cells per colonic crypt. Cells are produced at the crypt base and migrate upward along the crypt axis before being shed into the colonic lumen days later.[32] There are 5 to 6 stem cells at the bases of the crypts.[32]

As estimated from the image in panel A, there are about 100 colonic crypts per square millimeter of the colonic epithelium.[34] Since the average length of the human colon is 160.5 cm[11] and the average inner circumference of the colon is 6.2 cm,[34] the inner surface epithelial area of the human colon has an average area of about 995 cm2, which includes 9,950,000 (close to 10 million) crypts.

In the four tissue sections shown here, many of the intestinal glands have cells with a mitochondrial DNA mutation in the CCOI gene and appear mostly white, with their main color being the blue-gray staining of the nuclei. As seen in panel B, a portion of the stem cells of three crypts appear to have a mutation in CCOI, so that 40% to 50% of the cells arising from those stem cells form a white segment in the cross cut area.

Overall, the percent of crypts deficient for CCOI is less than 1% before age 40, but then increases linearly with age.[31] Colonic crypts deficient for CCOI in women reaches, on average, 18% in women and 23% in men by 80–84 years of age.[31]

Crypts of the colon can reproduce by fission, as seen in panel C, where a crypt is fissioning to form two crypts, and in panel B where at least one crypt appears to be fissioning. Most crypts deficient in CCOI are in clusters of crypts (clones of crypts) with two or more CCOI-deficient crypts adjacent to each other (see panel D).[31]
Mucosa

About 150 of the many thousands of protein coding genes expressed in the large intestine, some are specific to the mucous membrane in different regions and include CEACAM7.[35]
Function
Histological section.

The large intestine absorbs water and any remaining absorbable nutrients from the food before sending the indigestible matter to the rectum. The colon absorbs vitamins that are created by the colonic bacteria, such as thiamine, riboflavin, and vitamin K (especially important as the daily ingestion of vitamin K is not normally enough to maintain adequate blood coagulation).[36][citation needed][37] It also compacts feces, and stores fecal matter in the rectum until it can be discharged via the anus in defecation.

The large intestine also secretes K+ and Cl-. Chloride secretion increases in cystic fibrosis. Recycling of various nutrients takes place in the colon. Examples include fermentation of carbohydrates, short chain fatty acids, and urea cycling.[38][citation needed]

The appendix contains a small amount of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue which gives the appendix an undetermined role in immunity. However, the appendix is known to be important in fetal life as it contains endocrine cells that release biogenic amines and peptide hormones important for homeostasis during early growth and development.[39]

By the time the chyme has reached this tube, most nutrients and 90% of the water have been absorbed by the body. Indeed, as demonstrated by the commonality of ileostomy procedures, it is possible for many people to live without large portions of their large intestine, or even without it completely. At this point only some electrolytes like sodium, magnesium, and chloride are left as well as indigestible parts of ingested food (e.g., a large part of ingested amylose, starch which has been shielded from digestion heretofore, and dietary fiber, which is largely indigestible carbohydrate in either soluble or insoluble form). As the chyme moves through the large intestine, most of the remaining water is removed, while the chyme is mixed with mucus and bacteria (known as gut flora), and becomes feces. The ascending colon receives fecal material as a liquid. The muscles of the colon then move the watery waste material forward and slowly absorb all the excess water, causing the stools to gradually solidify as they move along into the descending colon.[40]

The bacteria break down some of the fiber for their own nourishment and create acetate, propionate, and butyrate as waste products, which in turn are used by the cell lining of the colon for nourishment.[41] No protein is made available. In humans, perhaps 10% of the undigested carbohydrate thus becomes available, though this may vary with diet;[42] in other animals, including other apes and primates, who have proportionally larger colons, more is made available, thus permitting a higher portion of plant material in the diet. The large intestine[43] produces no digestive enzymes — chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. The pH in the colon varies between 5.5 and 7 (slightly acidic to neutral).[44]
Standing gradient osmosis

Water absorption at the colon typically proceeds against a transmucosal osmotic pressure gradient. The standing gradient osmosis is the reabsorption of water against the osmotic gradient in the intestines. Cells occupying the intestinal lining pump sodium ions into the intercellular space, raising the osmolarity of the intercellular fluid. This hypertonic fluid creates an osmotic pressure that drives water into the lateral intercellular spaces by osmosis via tight junctions and adjacent cells, which then in turn moves across the basement membrane and into the capillaries, while more sodium ions are pumped again into the intercellular fluid.[45] Although water travels down an osmotic gradient in each individual step, overall, water usually travels against the osmotic gradient due to the pumping of sodium ions into the intercellular fluid. This allows the large intestine to absorb water despite the blood in capillaries being hypotonic compared to the fluid within the intestinal lumen.
Gut flora
Main article: Gut microbiota

The large intestine houses over 700 species of bacteria that perform a variety of functions, as well as fungi, protozoa, and archaea. Species diversity varies by geography and diet.[46] The microbes in a human distal gut often number in the vicinity of 100 trillion, and can weigh around 200 grams (0.44 pounds). This mass of mostly symbiotic microbes has recently been called the latest human organ to be “discovered” or in other words, the “forgotten organ”.[47]

The large intestine absorbs some of the products formed by the bacteria inhabiting this region. Undigested polysaccharides (fiber) are metabolized to short-chain fatty acids by bacteria in the large intestine and absorbed by passive diffusion. The bicarbonate that the large intestine secretes helps to neutralize the increased acidity resulting from the formation of these fatty acids.[48]

These bacteria also produce large amounts of vitamins, especially vitamin K and biotin (a B vitamin), for absorption into the blood. Although this source of vitamins, in general, provides only a small part of the daily requirement, it makes a significant contribution when dietary vitamin intake is low. An individual who depends on absorption of vitamins formed by bacteria in the large intestine may become vitamin-deficient if treated with antibiotics that inhibit the vitamin producing species of bacteria as well as the intended disease-causing bacteria.[49]

Other bacterial products include gas (flatus), which is a mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide, with small amounts of the gases hydrogen, methane, and hydrogen sulfide. Bacterial fermentation of undigested polysaccharides produces these. Some of the fecal odor is due to indoles, metabolized from the amino acid tryptophan. The normal flora is also essential in the development of certain tissues, including the cecum and lymphatics.[citation needed]

They are also involved in the production of cross-reactive antibodies. These are antibodies produced by the immune system against the normal flora, that are also effective against related pathogens, thereby preventing infection or invasion.

The two most prevalent phyla of the colon are Bacillota and Bacteroidota. The ratio between the two seems to vary widely as reported by the Human Microbiome Project.[50] Bacteroides are implicated in the initiation of colitis and colon cancer. Bifidobacteria are also abundant, and are often described as ‘friendly bacteria’.[51][52]

A mucus layer protects the large intestine from attacks from colonic commensal bacteria.[53]
Clinical significance
Disease
Main article: Gastrointestinal disease

Following are the most common diseases or disorders of the colon:

Angiodysplasia of the colon
Appendicitis
Chronic functional abdominal pain
Colitis
Colorectal cancer
Colorectal polyp
Constipation
Crohn's disease
Diarrhea
Diverticulitis
Diverticulosis
Hirschsprung's disease (aganglionosis)
Ileus
Intussusception
Irritable bowel syndrome
Pseudomembranous colitis
Ulcerative colitis and toxic megacolon

Colonoscopy
Main article: Colonoscopy
Colonoscopy image, splenic flexure,
normal mucosa. The spleen can be seen through it

Colonoscopy is the endoscopic examination of the large intestine and the distal part of the small bowel with a CCD camera or a fiber optic camera on a flexible tube passed through the anus. It can provide a visual diagnosis (e.g. ulceration, polyps) and grants the opportunity for biopsy or removal of suspected colorectal cancer lesions. Colonoscopy can remove polyps as small as one millimetre or less. Once polyps are removed, they can be studied with the aid of a microscope to determine if they are precancerous or not. It takes 15 years or fewer for a polyp to turn cancerous.

Colonoscopy is similar to sigmoidoscopy—the difference being related to which parts of the colon each can examine. A colonoscopy allows an examination of the entire colon (1200–1500 mm in length). A sigmoidoscopy allows an examination of the distal portion (about 600 mm) of the colon, which may be sufficient because benefits to cancer survival of colonoscopy have been limited to the detection of lesions in the distal portion of the colon.[54][55][56]

A sigmoidoscopy is often used as a screening procedure for a full colonoscopy, often done in conjunction with a stool-based test such as a fecal occult blood test (FOBT), fecal immunochemical test (FIT), or multi-target stool DNA test (Cologuard) or blood-based test, SEPT9 DNA methylation test (Epi proColon).[57] About 5% of these screened patients are referred to colonoscopy.[58]

Virtual colonoscopy, which uses 2D and 3D imagery reconstructed from computed tomography (CT) scans or from nuclear magnetic resonance (MR) scans, is also possible, as a totally non-invasive medical test, although it is not standard and still under investigation regarding its diagnostic abilities. Furthermore, virtual colonoscopy does not allow for therapeutic maneuvers such as polyp/tumour removal or biopsy nor visualization of lesions smaller than 5 millimeters. If a growth or polyp is detected using CT colonography, a standard colonoscopy would still need to be performed. Additionally, surgeons have lately been using the term pouchoscopy to refer to a colonoscopy of the ileo-anal pouch.
Other animals

The large intestine is truly distinct only in tetrapods, in which it is almost always separated from the small intestine by an ileocaecal valve. In most vertebrates, however, it is a relatively short structure running directly to the anus, although noticeably wider than the small intestine. Although the caecum is present in most amniotes, only in mammals does the remainder of the large intestine develop into a true colon.[59]

In some small mammals, the colon is straight, as it is in other tetrapods, but, in the majority of mammalian species, it is divided into ascending and descending portions; a distinct transverse colon is typically present only in primates. However, the taeniae coli and accompanying haustra are not found in either carnivorans or ruminants. The rectum of mammals (other than monotremes) is derived from the cloaca of other vertebrates, and is, therefore, not truly homologous with the “rectum” found in these species.[59]

In some fish, there is no true large intestine, but simply a short rectum connecting the end of the digestive part of the gut to the cloaca. In sharks, this includes a rectal gland that secretes salt to help the animal maintain osmotic balance with the seawater. The gland somewhat resembles a caecum in structure but is not a homologous structure.[59]

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Appendix (anatomy)

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Appendix
Appendix with surrounding structures
Variations of the appendix
Details
Precursor Midgut
System Digestive system
Artery Appendicular artery
Vein Appendicular vein
Identifiers
MeSH D001065
TA98 A05.7.02.007
TA2 2976
FMA 14542
Anatomical terminology

[edit on Wikidata]

The appendix (pl.: appendices or appendixes; also vermiform appendix; cecal (or caecal, cæcal) appendix; vermix; or vermiform process) is a finger-like, blind-ended tube connected to the cecum, from which it develops in the embryo.

The cecum is a pouch-like structure of the large intestine, located at the junction of the small and the large intestines. The term “vermiform” comes from Latin and means “worm-shaped”. The appendix was once considered a vestigial organ, but this view has changed since the early 2000s.[1][2] Research suggests that the appendix may serve an important purpose as a reservoir for beneficial gut bacteria.
Structure

The human appendix averages 9 cm (3.5 in) in length, ranging from 5 to 35 cm (2.0 to 13.8 in). The diameter of the appendix is 6 mm (0.24 in), and more than 6 mm (0.24 in) is considered a thickened or inflamed appendix. The longest appendix ever removed was 26 cm (10 in) long.[3] The appendix is usually located in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen, near the right hip bone. The base of the appendix is located 2 cm (0.79 in) beneath the ileocecal valve that separates the large intestine from the small intestine. Its position within the abdomen corresponds to a point on the surface known as McBurney’s point.

The appendix is connected to the mesentery in the lower region of the ileum, by a short region of the mesocolon known as the mesoappendix.[4]
Variation

Some identical twins—known as mirror image twins—can have a mirror-imaged anatomy, a congenital condition with the appendix located in the lower left quadrant of the abdomen instead of the lower right.[5][6] Intestinal malrotation may also cause displacement of the appendix to the left side.

While the base of the appendix is typically located 2 cm (0.79 in) below the ileocecal valve, the tip of the appendix can be variably located—in the pelvis, outside the peritoneum or behind the cecum.[7] The prevalence of the different positions varies amongst populations with the retrocecal position being most common in Ghana and Sudan, with 67.3% and 58.3% occurrence respectively, in comparison to Iran and Bosnia where the pelvic position is most common, with 55.8% and 57.7% occurrence respectively.[8][9][10][11]

In very rare cases, the appendix may not be present at all (laparotomies for suspected appendicitis have given a frequency of 1 in 100,000).[12]

Sometimes there is a semi-circular fold of mucous membrane at the opening of the appendix. This valve of the vermiform appendix is also called Gerlach’s valve.[4]
Functions
Maintaining gut flora
A possible function of the human appendix is a “safe house” for beneficial bacteria in the recovery from diarrhea

Although it has been long accepted that the immune tissue surrounding the appendix and elsewhere in the gut—called gut-associated lymphoid tissue—carries out a number of important functions, explanations were lacking for the distinctive shape of the appendix and its apparent lack of specific importance and function as judged by an absence of side effects following its removal.[13] Therefore, the notion that the appendix is only vestigial became widely held.

William Parker, Randy Bollinger, and colleagues at Duke University proposed in 2007 that the appendix serves as a haven for useful bacteria when illness flushes the bacteria from the rest of the intestines.[14][15] This proposition is based on an understanding that emerged by the early 2000s of how the immune system supports the growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria,[16][17] in combination with many well-known features of the appendix, including its architecture, its location just below the normal one-way flow of food and germs in the large intestine, and its association with copious amounts of immune tissue.

Research performed at Winthrop–University Hospital showed that individuals without an appendix were four times as likely to have a recurrence of Clostridioides difficile colitis.[18] The appendix, therefore, may act as a “safe house” for beneficial bacteria.[14] This reservoir of bacteria could then serve to repopulate the gut flora in the digestive system following a bout of dysentery or cholera or to boost it following a milder gastrointestinal illness.[15]
Immune and lymphatic systems

The appendix has been identified as an important component of mammalian mucosal immune function, particularly B cell-mediated immune responses and extrathymically derived T cells. This structure helps in the proper movement and removal of waste matter in the digestive system, contains lymphatic vessels that regulate pathogens, and lastly, might even produce early defences that prevent deadly diseases. Additionally, it is thought that this may provide more immune defences from invading pathogens and getting the lymphatic system’s B and T cells to fight the viruses and bacteria that infect that portion of the bowel and training them so that immune responses are targeted and more able to reliably and less dangerously fight off pathogens.[19] In addition, there are different immune cells called innate lymphoid cells that function in the gut in order to help the appendix maintain digestive health.[20]

Research also shows a positive correlation between the existence of the appendix and the concentration of cecal lymphoid tissue, which supports the suggestion that not only does the appendix evolve as a complex with the cecum but also has major immune benefits.[21]
Clinical significance
An appendiceal carcinoid tumor

Common diseases of the appendix (in humans) are appendicitis and carcinoid tumors (appendiceal carcinoid).[22] Appendix cancer accounts for about 1 in 200 of all gastrointestinal malignancies. In rare cases, adenomas are also present.[23]
Appendicitis
Main article: Appendicitis

Appendicitis is a condition characterized by inflammation of the appendix. Pain often begins in the center of the abdomen, corresponding to the appendix’s development as part of the embryonic midgut. This pain is typically a dull, poorly localized, visceral pain.[24]

As the inflammation progresses, the pain begins to localize more clearly to the right lower quadrant, as the peritoneum becomes inflamed. This peritoneal inflammation, or peritonitis, results in rebound tenderness (pain upon removal of pressure rather than application of pressure). In particular, it presents at McBurney’s point, 1/3 of the way along a line drawn from the anterior superior iliac spine to the umbilicus. Typically, point (skin) pain is not present until the parietal peritoneum is inflamed, as well. Fever and an immune system response are also characteristic of appendicitis.[24] Other signs and symptoms may include nausea and vomiting, low-grade fever that may get worse, constipation or diarrhea, abdominal bloating, or flatulence.[25]

Appendicitis usually requires the removal of the inflamed appendix, in an appendectomy either by laparotomy or laparoscopy. Untreated, the appendix may rupture, leading to peritonitis, followed by shock, and, if still untreated, death.[24]
Surgery
Main article: Appendectomy

The surgical removal of the appendix is called an appendectomy. This removal is normally performed as an emergency procedure when the patient is suffering from acute appendicitis. In the absence of surgical facilities, intravenous antibiotics are used to delay or avoid the onset of sepsis. In some cases, the appendicitis resolves completely; more often, an inflammatory mass forms around the appendix. This is a relative contraindication to surgery.

The appendix is also used for the construction of an efferent urinary conduit, in an operation known as the Mitrofanoff procedure,[26] in people with a neurogenic bladder.

The appendix is also used as a means to access the colon in children with paralysed bowels or major rectal sphincter problems. The appendix is brought out to the skin surface and the child/parent can then attach a catheter and easily wash out the colon (via normal defaecation) using an appropriate solution.[27]
History

Charles Darwin suggested that the appendix was mainly used by earlier hominids for digesting fibrous vegetation, then evolved to take on a new purpose over time. The very long cecum of some herbivorous animals, such as in the horse or the koala, appears to support this hypothesis. The koala’s cecum enables it to host bacteria that specifically help to break down cellulose. Human ancestors may have also relied upon this system when they lived on a diet rich in foliage.

As people began to eat more easily digested foods, they may have become less reliant on cellulose-rich plants for energy. As the cecum became less necessary for digestion, mutations that were previously deleterious (and would have hindered evolutionary progress) were no longer important, so the mutations survived. It is suggested that these alleles became more frequent and the cecum continued to shrink. After millions of years, the once-necessary cecum degraded to be the appendix of modern humans.[28]

Dr. Heather F. Smith of Midwestern University and colleagues explained:

Recently ... improved understanding of gut immunity has merged with current thinking in biological and medical science, pointing to an apparent function of the mammalian cecal appendix as a safe-house for symbiotic gut microbes, preserving the flora during times of gastrointestinal infection in societies without modern medicine. This function is potentially a selective force for the evolution and maintenance of the appendix. Three morphotypes of cecal-appendices can be described among mammals based primarily on the shape of the cecum: a distinct appendix branching from a rounded or sac-like cecum (as in many primate species), an appendix located at the apex of a long and voluminous cecum (as in the rabbit, greater glider and Cape dune mole rat), and an appendix in the absence of a pronounced cecum (as in the wombat). In addition, long narrow appendix-like structures are found in mammals that either lack an apparent cecum (as in monotremes) or lack a distinct junction between the cecum and appendix-like structure (as in the koala). A cecal appendix has evolved independently at least twice, and apparently represents yet another example of convergence in morphology between Australian marsupials and placentals in the rest of the world. Although the appendix has apparently been lost by numerous species, it has also been maintained for more than 80 million years in at least one clade.[29]

In a 2013 paper, the appendix was found to have independently evolved in different animals at least 32 times (and perhaps as many as 38 times) and to have been lost no more than six times over the course of history.[30] A more recent study using similar methods on an updated database yielded similar, though less spectacular results, with at least 29 gains and at the most 12 losses (all of which were ambiguous), and this is still significantly asymmetrical.[31]

This suggests that the cecal appendix has a selective advantage in many situations and argues strongly against its vestigial nature. Given that this organ may have a selective advantage in numerous situations, it appears to be associated with greater maximal longevity, for a given body mass.[32] For example, in a 2023 study, the protective functions conferred against diarrhea were observed in young primates.[33] This complex evolutionary history of the appendix, along with a great heterogeneity in its evolutionary rate in various taxa, suggests that it is a recurrent trait.[34]

Such a function may be useful in a culture lacking modern sanitation and healthcare practice, where diarrhea may be prevalent. Current epidemiological data on the cause of death in developing countries collected by the World Health Organization in 2001 show that acute diarrhea is now the fourth leading cause of disease-related death in developing countries (data summarized by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation). Two of the other leading causes of death are expected to have exerted limited or no selection pressure.[35]

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